-NRLF 


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tflartin  |UlI0gg. 


LIBRARY   OF   THE 


^University  of  California. 


IRCULATIHG    BRANCH.       S6! 

ft* 

u 
Return  in  two  weeks  ;  or  a  week  before  the  end  of  the  term, 


\ 


THE 

INSTITUTES 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR, 

METHODICALLY    ARRANGED; 

WITH 

EXAMPLES  FOR  PARSING,  QUESTIONS  FOR  EXAMINATION,  FALSE 

SYNTAX   FOR    CORRECTION,  EXERCISES    FOR   WRITING, 

OBSERVATIONS  FOR  THE  ADVANCED  STUDENT, 


A  KEY  TO  THE   OEAL  EXERCISES: 

TO   WHICH   ARE   ADDED 

FOUR    APPENDIXES, 

DESIGNED   FOR   THE   USE    OF    SCHOOLS,    ACADEMIES,  AND   PRIVATB 
LEARNERS. 


BY    GOOLD    BROWN, 

PRINCIPAL  OF  AN  ENGLISH  AND  CLASSICAL  ACADEMY,  NEW  YORK. 

Nc  quls  igitur  tanquam  parva  fastidiat  Grammatioes  olementa. — QUINTILIA 

STEREOTYPE    EDITION, 

REVISED  BY  THE   AUTHOR. 


NEW    YORK: 
SAMUEL    S.    &   WILLIAM   WOOD, 

261    PEARL    STREET. 
1855. 


,8** 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1351, 

BY    GOOLD    BROWN, 
In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  District  of  Massachusetts. 


PREFACE. 


enim  aut  aliena  vituperare,  nut  noatrajactantiugpr&dicare,  animus  cst.); 


i  LANGUAGE  is  the  principal  vehicle  of  thought ;  and  so  numerous  and  important 
ai'e  the  ends  to  which  it  is  subservient,  that  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  in  what  manner 
the  affairs  ojChuman  society  could  be  conducted  without  it.  Its  utility,  therefore,  will 
ever  entitle  it  to  a  considerable  share  of  attention  in  civilized  communities,  and  to  au 
important  place  in  all  systems  of  education.  For,  whatever  we  may  think  in  relation 
to  its  origin — whether  we  consider  it  a  special  gift  from  Heaven,  or  an  acquisition  of 
industry — a  natural  endowment,  or  an  artificial  invention,— certain -it  is,  thai,  in  tho 
present  state  of  things,  our  knowledge  of  it  depends,  in  a  great  measure,  if  not  entire- 
ly, on  the  voluntary  exercise  of  our  faculties,  and  on  the  helps  and  opportunities  atlbrd- 
ed  us.  One  may  indeed  acquire,  by  mure  imitation,  such  a  knowledge  of  words,  trs  to 
enjoy  the  ordinary  advantages  of  speech  ;  and  he  who  is  satisfied  with  the  dialect  he 
has  so  obtained,  will  find  no  occasion  for  treatises  on  grammar  ;  but  he  who  is  Jesirous 
either  of  relishing  the  beauties  of  literary  composition,  or  of  expressing  his  sentiments 
with  propriety  and  ease,  must  make  the  principles  of  language  his  study. 

2.  It  is  not  the  business  of  the  grammarian  to  give  law  to  language,  but  to  tench  it 
agreeably  to  the  best  usage.    The  ultimate  principle  by  which  he  must  be  governed 
and  with  which  his  instructions  must  always  accord,  is  that  species  of  custom  which 
critics  denominate  GOOD  USE  ;  that  is,  present,  reputable,  general  use.    This  principle, 
which  is  equally  opposed  to  fantastic  innovation,  and  to  a  pertinacious  adherence  to 
the  quaint  peculiarities  of  ancient  usage,  Is  the  only  proper  standard  of  grammatical 
purity.    Those  rules  and  modes  of  speech,  which  are  established  by  this  authority 
may  be  called  the  Institutes  of  Grammar. 

3.  To  embody,  in  a  convenient  form,  the  true  principles  of  the  English  Language  , 
to  express  them  in  a  simple  and  perspicuous  style,  adapted  to  the  capacity  of  youth ;  to 
illustrate  them  by  appropriate  examples  and  exercises;  and  to  give  to  the  whole  all 
possible  advantage  from  method  in  the  arrangement ;  are  the  objects  of  the  following 
work.    The  author  has  not  deviated  much  from  the  principles  adopted  in  the  most  ap- 
proved grammars  already  in  use  ;  nor  has  he  acted  the  part  of  a  servile  copyist.     It 
was  not  his  design  10  introduce  novelties,  but  to  form  a  practical  digest  of  established 
rules.    He  has  not  laboured  to  subvert  the  general  system  of  grammar,  received  from 
time  immemorial :  Dut  to  improve  upon  it,  in  its  present  application  to  our  tongue. 

4.  That  which  is  excellent,  may  not  be  perfect ;  and  amendment  may  be  desirable, 
where  subversion  would  be  ruinous.    Believing  that  no  theory  can  better  explain  the 
principles  of  our  language,  and  no  contrivance  afford  greater  facilities  to  the  student, 
the  writer  has  in  general  adopted  those  doctrines  which  are  already  best  known  ;  and 
has  contented  himself  with  attempting  little  more  than  an  improved  method  of  incul- 
cating them.    The  scope  of  his  labours  has  been,  to  define,  dispose,  and  exemplify 
those  doctrines  anew;  and,  with  a  scrupulous  regard  to  the  best  usage,  to  oiler,  o.'i 
that  authority,  some  further  contributions  to  the  stock  of  grammatical  know!c(ij:\ 
The  errors  of  former  grammarians  he  has  been  more  studious  to  a  void  than  to  evpo-r  • 
and  of  their  deficiencies  the  reader  may  judge,  when  he  sees  in  what  manner  they  arts 
here  supplied. 

5.  This  treatise  being  intended  for  general  use,  and  adapted  to  all  classes  of  learners, 
was  designed  to  embrace  in  a  small  compass  a  complete  course  of  Engrish  Grammar, 
disencumbered  of  every  thing  not  calculated  to  convey  direct  information  on  the  sub- 
'Pri.     Little  regard  has  therefore  been  paid  togainsaycrs.    Grammarian^  haw:  everdis- 
omed,  and  often  with  more  acrimony  than  discretion.    Those  who  have  dealt  most  in 
phuological  controversy,  rune  well  illustrated  the  couplet  of  Denham: 

"The  tree  of  knowledge,  blasted  by  disputes, 
Produces  sapless  leaves  in  stead  of  fruits." 


282644 


IV  PREFACE. 

6.  They  who  set  aside  the  authority  of  custom,  and jurige  every  thing  to  be  ungram 
maticnl  which  appears  to  them  to  be  unphilosophical,  render  the  whole  ground  forever 
disputable,  and  weary  themselves  in  beating  the  air.     So  various  have  been  the  no- 
tions ot"  this  sort  of  critics,  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  mention  an  opinion  not  found 
in  some  of  their  books.     Amidst  this  rage  for  speculation  on  a  subject  purely  practical, 
various  attempts  have  been  made,  to  overthrow  that  system  of  instruction,  which  lonf 
use  has  rendered  venerable,  and  long  experience  proved  to  be  useful.     But  it  is  mani- 
festly much  easier  to  raise  even  plausible  objections  against  this  system,  than  to  in- 
vent an  other  less  objectionable.     Such  attempts  have  generally  met  the  reception  they 
deserved.    Their  history  will  give  no  encouragement  to  future  innovators. 

7.  While  some  have  thus  wasted  their  energies  in  eccentric  flights,  vainly  supposing 
that  the  learning  of  nges  won  Id  give  place  to  their  whimsical  theories;  others,  with 
more  success,  not  better  deserved,  have  multiplied  grammars  almost  innumerably,  by- 
abridging  or  modifying  the  books  they  had  used  in  childhood.     So  that  they  who  are 
at  all  acquainted  with  the  origin  and  character  of  the  various  compendsthus  introdu- 
ced into  our  schools,  cannot  but  desire  a  work  which  shall  deserve  a  more  extensive 
and  more  permanent  patronage,  based  upon  better  claims.    For,  as  Lord  Bacon  oil- 
serves,  the  number  of  ill-written  books  is  not  to  be  diminished  by  ceasing  to  write,  but 
by  writing  others  which,  like  Aaron's  serpent,  shall  swallow  up  the  spurious. 

8.  The  nature  of  the  subject  almost  entirely  precludes  invention.    The  author  has, 
however,  aimed  at  that  kind  and  degree  of  originality,  which  are  to  be  commended  in 
works  of  this  sort;  and  has  borrowed  no  more  from  others  than  did  the  most  learned 
and  popular  of  his  predecessors.    And,  though  he  has  taken  the  liberty  to  think  and 
write  for  himself,  he  trusts  it  will  be  evident  that  few  have  excelled  him  in  diligence 
of  research,  or  have  followed  more  implicitly  the  dictates  of  that  authority  which 
gives  law  to  language. 

(J.  All  science  is  (aid  in  the  nature  of  things  ;  and  he  only  who  seeks  it  there,  can 
rightly  guide  others  in  the  paths  of  knowledge.  He  alone  can  know  whether  his  pre- 
decessors went  right  or  wrong,  who  is  capable  of  a  judgement  independent  of  theirs. 
But  with  what  shameful  servility  have  many  false  or  faulty  definitions  and  rules  been 
copied  and  copied  from  one  grammar  to  another,  as  if  authority  had  canonized  their 
errors,  or  none  had  eyes  to  see  them  !  Whatsoever  is  dignified  and  fair,  is  also  modest 
and  reasonable  ;  but  modesty  does  not  consist  in  having  no  opinion  of  one's  own,  nor 
reason  in  following  with  blind  partiality  the  footsteps  of  others.  Grammar  unsupport- 
ed by  authority,  is  indeed  mere  fiction.  But  what  apology  is  this,  for  that  authorship 
which  has  produced  so  many  grammars  without  originality'?  Shall  he  who  cannot 
write  for  himself,  improve  upon  him  who  can  1  It  is  not  deference  to  merit,  but  im 
pudent  pretence,  practising  on  the  credulity  of  ignorance  !  Commonness  alone  exempt* 
it  from  scrutiny,  and  the  success  it  has,  is  but  the  wages  of  its  own  worthlessnfss!  To 
read  and  be  informed,  is  to  make  a  proper  use  of  books  for  the  advancement  of  learn- 
ing; but  to  assume  to  be  an  author  by  editing  mere  commonplaces  and  stolen  criti- 
cisms, is  equally  beneath  the  ambition  of  a  scholar  and  the  honesty  of  a  man. 

10.  Grammar  being  a  practical  art,  with  the  principles  of  which  every  intelligent 
person  is  more  or  less  acquainted,  it  might  be  expected  that  a  book  written  professed- 

v  --is  me  subject,  should  exhibit  some  evidence  of  its  author's  skill.  But  it  would 
seen,  that  a  multitude  of  bad  or  indifferent  writers  have  judged  themselves  qualified 
to  teach  the  art  of  speaking  and  writing  well;  so  that  correctness  of  language  and 
neatnt'-s  of  style  are  as  rarely  to  be  found  in  grammars  as  in  other  books.  There  have 
been,  however,  several  excellent  scholars,  who  have  thought  it  an  object  not  unwor- 
thy of  their  talents,  to  prescribe  and  elucidate  the  principles  of  English  Grammar. 
B*U  these,  ior  an  obvious  reason,  have  executed  their  designs  with  various  degrees  of 
success  :  and  even  the  most  meritorious  have  left  ample  room  for  improvement, 
though  some  have  evinced  a-n  ability  which  does  honour  to  themselves,  while  it  gives 
cause  to  regret  their  lack  of  an  inducement  to  further  la  hour.  The  mere  grammarian 
can  neither  aspire  to  praise,  nor  stipulate  fora  reward  ;  and  to  those  who  were  best 
qualified  to  write,  the  subject  could  offer  no  adequate  motive  tor  diligence. 

11.  Having  devoted  many  years  to  studies  of  this  nature,  and  being  conversant  with 
aiost  of  the  grammatical  treatises  already  published,  the  author  conceived  that  the  ob- 
jects above  enumerated,  might,  perhaps,  be  better  effected  than  they  had  been  in  any 
work  within  his  knowledge.     And  he  persuades  himself  that  the  improvements  here 
offered,  are  neither  few  nor  inconsiderable.    He  does  not  mean,  however,  to  depreciate 
the   labours,  or  to  detract  from  the  merits  of  those  who  have  gone  before  him  and 
taught  with  acknowledged  skill.     He  has  studiously  endeavoured  to  avail  himself  of 
all  the  light  they  have  thrown  upon  the  subject.    For  his  own  information,  he  has 
carefully  perused  more  than  fifty  English  grammars,  and  has  glanced  over  many  others 
that  were  not  worth  reading.     With  this  publication  in  view,  he  has  also  resorted  to 
the  original  sources  of  grammatical  knowledge,  and  has  not  only  critically  considered 
what  he  has  seen  and  heard  of  our  vernacular  tongue,  but  has  sought  with  some  dili- 
gence the  analogies  of  speech  in  the  structure  of  several  other  languages. 

12.  His  progress  in  compiling  this  work  has  been  slow,  and  not  unattended  with  la- 
bour and  difficulty,     Amidst  the  contrarieties  of  opinion,  that  appear  in  the  varioui 
treatises  already  before  the  public,  and  the  perplexities  inseparable  from  so  complica 
ted  a  subject,  he  has   after  deliberate  consideration,  adopted  those  views  and  explana- 


PREFACE.  V 

lions  which  appeared  to  him  the  least  liable  to  objection,  and  the  most  compatible 
with  his  ultimate  object — the  production  of  a  practical  school  gtainmar. 

13  Ambitious  of  making  not  a  large  but  an  acceptable  book,  he  has  compressed  Into 
this  volume  the  most  essential  p:irts  of  a  mass  of  materials  from  which  he  could  as 
easily  have  formed  a  folio.  Whether  the  toil  ho  compensated  or  not,  is  a  matter  of 
little  consequence;  he  has  neither  written  for  bread,  nor  built  castles  iu  the  air.  He 
is  too  well  versed  in  the  history  of  his  theme,  too  well  aware  of  the  precarious  fortune 
of  authors,  to  indulge  any  confident  anticipations  of  success  ;  yet  he  will  not  deny 
that  his  hopes  are  large,  being  conscious  of  having  cherished  them  with  a  liberality  of 
feeling  which  cannot  fear  disappointment.  In  this  temper  he  would  invite  the  reader 
to  a  thorough  perusal  of  the  following  p:iges.  A  grammar  should  speak  for  itself,  lo 
a  work  of  this  nature,  every  word  or  tittle  which  does  not  recommend  the  performan:e 
to  the  understanding  and  taste  of  the  skilful,  is,  so  far  as  it  goes,  a  certificate  against  it 
Yet  if  some  small  errors  have  escaped  detection,  let  it  be  recollected  that  It  is  -timoar 
impossible  to  print  with  perfect  accuracy  a  work  of  this  size,  in  which  so  man,  little 
things  should  be  observed,  remembered,  and  made  exactly  to  correspond.  T'tere  i* 
110  human  vigilance  which  multiplicity  may  not  sometimes  balile,  and  mini.'ienes* 
sometimes  elude.  To  most  persons  grammar  seems  a  dry  and  difficult  subject;  biU 
there  is  a  disposition  of  mind,  to  which  what  is  arduous,  is  for  that  very  reason  al  la- 
ring.  The  difficulties  encountered  in  boyhood  from  the  use  of  a  miserable  epitome,  and 
the  deep  impression  of  a  few  mortifying  blunders  made  in  public,  first  gave  the  author 
a  fondness  for  grammar  ;  circumstances  having  since  favoured  this  turn  of  his  genius, 
he  has  voluntarily  pursued  the  study,  with  an  assiduity  which  no  man  will  ever  imi- 
tate for  the  sake  of  pecuniary  recompense. 

14.  This  work  contains  a  full  series  of  exercises  adapted  to  its  several  parts,  with 
notices  of  the  manner  in  which  they  are  to  be  used,  according  to  the  place  assigned 
them.  The  examples  of  false  syntax  placed  under  the  rules,  are  to  be  corrected  oral- 
ly ;  tiie  four  chapters  of  exercises  adapted  to  the  four  parts  of  the  subject,  are  to  be 
written  out  by  the  learner.  In  selecting  examples  for  these  exercises,  the  author  has 
been  studious  to  economize  the  learner's  and  the  teacher's  time,  by  admitting  those 
only  which  were  very  short.  He  has,  in  general,  reduced  each  example  to  a  single 
line.  And,  in  this  manner,  he  has  been  able  to  present,  in  this  small  volume,  a  series 
of  exercises,  more  various  than  are  given  in  any  other  grammar,  arid  nearly  equal  in 
Dumber  to  all  that  are  contained  in  Murray's  two  octavoes.  It  is  believed  that  agmw 


•eadily  applied.)  Oral  instruction  may  smoothe  the  way, 
labour  of  the  learner;  but  the  notion  of  communicating  a  competent  knowledge  of 
grammar  without  imposing  this  task,  is  disproved  by  universal  experience.  lSTor  will 
it  avail  any  thing  for  the  student  to  rehearse  definitions  and  rules  of  which  he  makes 
no  practical  application.  In  etymology  and  syntax,  he  should  be  alternately  exercised 
in  learning  small  portions  of  his  book,  and  then  applying  them  in  parsing,  till  the 
whole  is  rendered  familiar.  To  a  good  reader,  the  achievement  will  be  neither  great 
nor  difficult ;  and  the  exercise  is  well  calculated  to  improve  the  memory,  and  strength- 
en all  the  faculties  of  the  mind. 

16.  The  mode  of  instruction  here  recommended  is  the  result  of  long  and  successful 
experience.    There  is  nothing  in  it,  which  any  person  of  common  abilities  will  find  it 
difficult  to  understand  or  adopt.    It  is  the  plain  didactic  method  of  definition  and  ex- 
ample, rule  and  praxis ;  which  no  man  who  means  to  teach  grammar  well,  will  ever 
desert,  with  the  hope  of  finding  an  other  more  rational  or  more  easy.    The  book  itself 
will  make  any  one  a  grammarian,  who  will  take  the  trouble  to  observe  and  practise 
what  it  teaches;  and  even  if  some  instructors  should  not  adopt  the  readiest  and  most 
efficient  method  of  making  their  pupils  familiar  with  its  contents,  they  will  not  fail  to 
instruct  by  it  as  effectually  as  they  can  by  any  other.    Whoever  is  acquainted  with 
the  grammar  of  our  language,  so  as  to  have  some  tolerable  skill  in  teaching  it,  will  here 
find  almost  every  thing  that  is  true  in  his  own  instructions,  clearly  embraced  under  its 
proper  head,  so  as  to  be  easy  of  reference.     And  perhaps  there  are  few,  however  learn 
ed,  who,  on  a  perusal  of  the  volume,  would  not  be  furnished  with  some  important 
rules  and  facts  which  had  not  before  occurred  to  their  own  observation. 

17.  The  greatest  peculiarity  of  the  method  is,  that  it  requires  the  pupil  to  speak  or 
tvrite  a  great  deal,  and  the  teacher  very  little.    But  both  should  constantly  remember 
that  graimnnr  is  the  art  of  speaking  and  "  'iMng  well ;  an  art  which  can  no  more  be 
acquired  without  practise  than  that  of  da..<- \g  or  swimming.    And  each  should  be 
careful  to  perform  his  part  handsomely — w.nout  drawling,  omitting,  stopping,  hesita- 
ting, faltering,  miscalling,  reiterating,  stuttering,  hurrying,  slurring,  mouthing,  misquo- 
ting, mispronouncing,  or  any  of  the  thousand  iaults  which  render  utterance  disagree- 
able and  inelegant.     It  is  the  learner's  diction  that  is  to  be  improved  ;  and  tho  system 
will  be  found  well  calculated  to  effect  that  object;  because  it  demands  of  hu.i,  not 
only  to  answer  questions  on  grammar,  but  also  to  make  a  prompt  and  practical  appli- 
cation of  what  he  has  just  learned.     If  the  class  be  tolerable  reader*,  it  will  not  be 
necessary  for  the  teacher  to  say  much  ;  and.  hi  general,  he  ought  not  to  take  up  the 
time  by  so  doing.     He  should,  however,  carefully  superintend  tueir  rehearsals  ;  give 

r 


?J  PREFACE. 

the  word  to  the  next,  when  any  one  errs  ;  and  order  the  exercise  in  such  a  manner 
that  either  his  own  voice,  or  the  example  of  his  best  scholars,  may  gradually  correct 
the  ill  habits  of  the  awkward,  till  all  learn  to  recite  with  clearness,  understanding 
well  what  they  say,  and  making  it  intelligible  to  others. 

13.  The  exercise  of  parsing  commences  immediately  after  the  first  lesson  of  Kymol- 
ogy,  and  is  carried  on  progressively  till  it  embraces  all  the  doctrines  that  are  applica- 
ble to  it.  If  it  be  performed  according  to  the  order  prescribed,  it  will  soon  make  the 
student  perfectly  familiar  with  all  the  primary  definitions  and  rules  of  grammar.  It 
requires  just  enough  of  thought  to  keep  the  mind  attentive  to  what  the  lips  are  utter- 
ing;  while  it  advances  by  such  easy  gradations  and  constant  repetitions  as  leave  the 
pupil  utterly  without  excuse,  if  he  does  not  know  what  to  say.  Being  neither  wholly 
extemporaneous  nor  wholly  rehearsed  by  rote,  it  has  more  dignity  than  a  schoolboy's 
conversation,  and  more  ease  than  a  formal  recitation;  and  is  therefore  an  exercise 
\rcll  calculated  to  induce  a  habit  of  uniting  correctness  with  fluency  in  ordinary 
speech— a  species  of  elocution  as  valuable  as  any  other. 

19.  The  best  instruction  is  that  which  ultimately  gives  the  greatest  facility  and  skill 
in  practice  ;  and  grammar  is  best  taught  by  that  process  which  brings  its  doctrines 
most  directly  home  to  the  habits  as  well  as  to  the  thoughts  of  the  pupil — which  the 
most  effectually  conquers  inattention,  and  leaves  the  deepest  impress  of  shame  upon 
blundering  ignorance.    In  the  whole  range  of  school  exercises,  there  is  none  of  greater 
importance  than  that  of  parsing;  and  yet  perhaps  there  is  none  which  is,  in  general, 
more  defectively  conducted.     Scarcely  less  useful,  as  a  means  of  instruction,  is  the 
practice  of  correcting  false  syntax  orally,  by  regular  and  logical  forms  of  argument ; 
nor  does  this  appear  to  have  been  more  ably  directed  towards  the  purposes  of  disci- 
pline.   There  is  so  much  to  be  done,  in  order  to  elfect  what  is  desirable  in  the  man- 
agement of  these  things;  and  so  little  prospect  that  education  will  ever  be  generally 
raised  to  a  just  appreciation  of  that  study  which,  more  than  all  others,  forms  the  mind 
to  habits  of  correct  thinking;  that,  in  reflecting  upon  the  state  of  the  science  at  the 
present  time,  and  upon  the  means  of  its  improvement,  the  author  cannot  but  sympa- 
thize, in  some  degree,  with  the  sadness  of  the  learned  Sanctius  ;  who  tells  us  th*t  he 
had  "always  lamented,  and  often  with  tears,  that  while  other  branches  of  .earning 
were  excellently  taught,  grammar,  which  is  the  foundation  of  all  others,  lay  so  much 
neglected,  and  that  for  this  neglect  there  seemed  to  be  no  adequate  remedy."—  Pref. 
to  Minerva.     The  grammatical  use  of  language  is  in  sweet  alliance  with  the  moral ; 
and  a  similar  regret  seems  to  have  prompted  the  following  exclamation  of  the  Chris 
tian  poet : 

"Sacred  Interpreter  of  human  thought, 
How  few  respect  or  use  thee  as  they  ought!" — Cowper. 

20.  No  directions,  either  oral  or  written,  can  ever  enable  the  heedless  and  the  un 
thinking  to  speak  or  write  well.    That  must  indeed  be  an  admirable  book,  which  can 
attract  levity  to  sober  reflection,  teach  thoughtlessness  the  true  meanin?  of  words, 
raise  vulgarity  from  its  fondness  for  low  examples,  awaken  the  spirit  which  attains  to 
excellency  of  speech,  and  cause  grammatical  exercises  to  be  skilfully  managed,  where 
teachers  themselves  are  so  often  lamentably  deficient  in  them.    Yet  something  may 
be  effected  by  means  of  a  better  book,  if  a  better  can  be  introduced.    And  what  with- 
stands ? — Whatever  there  is  of  ignorance  or  error  in  relation  to  the  premises.     And  is 
it  arrogant  to  say  there  is  much?    Alas!  in  regard  to  this,  as  well  as  to  ninny  a 
weightier  matter,  one  may  too  truly  affirm,  Muha  non  sunt  sicut  mult.is  videntur— 
Many  things  are  not  as  they  seem  to  many.    Common  errors  are  apt  to  conceal  them- 
selves from  the  common  mind  ;  and  the  appeal  to  reason  and  just  f -Minority  is  often 
frustrated,  because  a  wrong  head  defies  both.    But,  apart  from  this,  there  are  difficul- 
ties :  multiplicity  perplexes  choice  ;  inconvenience  attends  change;  improvement  re- 
quires effort;  conflicting  theories  demand  examination;  the  principles  of  the  science 
are  unpro  itably  disputed  ;  the  end  is  often  divorced  from  the  means;  and  much  that 
belies  the  title,  has  been  published  under  the  name. 

•21.  It  is  certain,  that  the  printed  formularies  most  commonly  furnished  for  the  im 
nortant  exercises  of  parsing  and  correcting,  are  either  so  awkwardly  written,  or  so 
M'-jrliuently  followed,  as  to  make  grammar,  in  the  mouths  of  our  juvenile  orators,  little 
ehe  than  a  crude  and  faltering  jargon.  Murray  evidently  intended  that  his  book  of 
exercises  should  be  constantly  used  with  his  grammar  ;  but  he  made  the  examples  iu 
;he  former  so  dull  and  prolix,  that  few  learners,  if  any,  have  ever  gone  through  the 
series  agreeably  to  his  direction.  The  publishing  of  them  in  a  separate  volume,  has 
probably  given  rise  to  the  absurd  practice  of  endeavouring  to  teach  his  grammar  with- 
out them.  The  forms  of  parsing  and  correcting  which  this  author  furnishes,  are  also 
misplaced  ;  and  when  found  by  the  learner,  are  of  little  use.  They  are  so  verbose, 
awkward,  irregular,  and  deficient,  that  the  pupil  must  be  a  dull  boy,  or  utterly  igno- 
rant of  grammar,  if  he  cannot  express  the  facts  extemporaneously  in  better  English. 
When  we  consider  how  exceedingly  important  it  is,  that  the  business  of  a  school 
should  proceed  without  loss  of  time,  and  that,  in  the  oral  exercises  here  spoken  of, 
each  pupil  should  go  through  his  part  promptly,  clearly,  correctly,  and  fully,  we  can- 
not  think  it  a  Ugnt  objection  that  these  forms,  so  often  to  be  repeated,  are  badly  writ- 
ten cNor  does  the  objection  lie  against  this  writer  only:  Jib  uno  disco  omneg.  But 
the  reader  mtw  demand  some  illustrations. 


PREFACE.  Vll 

22.  First — Irom  his  etymological  parsing :  "  O  Virtue !  how  amiable  thou  art !"    Here 
his  form  for  the  word  Virtue  is — "  Virtue  is  a  common  substantive,  of  the  neuter  gen- 
der, of  the  third  person,  in  the  singular  number,  and  the  nominative  case."     It  should 
have  been — "  Virtue  is  a  common  noun,  personified  proper,  of  the  second  person,  sin- 
gular number,  feminine  gender,  and  nominative  case."     And,  then  the  definitions  of 
all  these  things  should  have  followed  in  regular  numerical  order.     He  gives  the  class 
of  this  noun  wrong,  for  virtue  addressed  becomes  an  Individual ;  he  gives  the  gender 
wrong,  and  in  direct  contradiction  to  what  he  says  of  the  word,  in  his  section  on  gender ; 
he  gives  the  person  wrong,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  pronoun  thou ;  he  repeats  the  definite 
article  three  times  unnecessarily,  and  inserts  two  needless  prepositions,  making  them  dif- 
ferent where  the  relation  is  precisely  the  same :  and  all  this,  in  a  sentence  of  two  lines, 
to  tell  the  properties  of  the  noun  Virtue! — But,  in  etymological  parsing,  the  definitions 
explaining  the  properties  of  the  parts  of  speech,  ought  to  be  regularly  and  rapidly  re 
hearsed  by  the  pupil,  till  all  of  them  are  perfectly  familiar,  and  till  he  can  discern, 
with  the  quickness  of  thought,  what  is  true  or  false  in  the  description  of  any  word  in 
any  intelligible  sentence.    All  these  the  author  omits  ;  arid,  on  account  of  this  omis- 
sion, his  whole  method  of  etymological  parsing  is  miserably  deficient. 

23.  Secondly — from  his  syntactical  parking :  "  Vice  degrades  us."     Here  his  form  for 
the  word  Vice  is — "  Vice  is  a  common  substantive,  of  the  third  person,  in  the  singular 
number,  and  the  nominative  case."    Now,  when  the  learner  is  told  that  this  is  the  syn- 
tactical parsing  of  a  noun,  and  the  other  the  etymological,  he  will  of  course  conclude, 
that  to  advance  from  the  etymology  to  the  syntax  of  this  part  of  speech,  is  merely  to 
omit  the  gcndei — this  being  the  only  difference  between  the  two  forms.     But  even  this 
difference  had  no  other  origin  than  the  compiler's  carelessness  in  preparing  his  octavo 
book  of  exercises— the  gender  being  inserted  in  the  duodecimo.     And  what  then?     Is 
the  syntactical  parsing  of  a  noun  to  be  precisely  the  same  as  the  etymological  ?     Never. 
Rut  Murray,  and  all  who  admire,  and  follow  his  work,  are  content  to  parse  many 
words  by  halves — making  a  distinction,  and  yet  often  omitting,  in  both  parts  of  the  ex- 
ercise, every  thing  which  constitutes  the  difference.    He  should  here  have  said — 
"  Vice  is  a  common  noun,  of  the   third  person,  singular  number,  neuter  gender,  and 
nominative  case :  and  is  the  subject  of  degrades ;  according  to  the  rule  which  says. 
'  A  noun  or  a  pronoun  which  is  the  subject  of  a  verb,  must  be  in  the  nominative  case. 
Because  the  meaning  is — vice  degrades."     This  is  the  whole  description  of  the  word, 
with  its  construction  ;  and  to  say  less,  is  to  leave  the  matter  unfinished. 

24.  Thirdly — from  his  "mode  of  verbally  correcting  erroneous  sentences:  'The  man 
is  prudent  which  speaks  little.'    This  sentence  is  incorrect ;  because  which  is  a  pro- 
noun of  the  neuter  gender,  and  does  not  agree  in  gender  with  its  antecedent  man,  which 
is  masculine.     But  a  pronoun  should  agree  with  its  antecedent  in  gender,  &.c.  accord- 
ing to  the  fifth  rule  of  syntax.     Which  should  therefore  be  who,  a  relative  pronoun, 
agreeing  with  its  antecedent  man;  and  the  sentence  should  stand  thus  :  'The  man  is 
prudent  who  speaks  little.'  "     Again:  "  '  After  I  visited  Europe,  I  returned  to  Ameri- 
ca.'    This  sentence  is  not  correct ;  because  the  verb  visited  is  in  the  imperfect  tense, 
and  yet  used  here  to  express  an  action,  not  only  past,  but  prior  to  the  time  referred  to 
by  the  verb  returned,  to  which  it  relates.    By  the  thirteenth  rule  of  syntax,  when 
verbs  are  used  that,  in  point  of  time,  relate  to  each  other,  the  order  of  time  should  be 
observed.    The  imperfect  tense  visited  should  therefore  have  been  had  visited,  in  the 
pluperfect  tense,  representing  the  action  of  visiting,  not  only  as  past,  but  also  as  prior 
to  the  time  of  returning.     The  sentence  corrected  would  stand  thus  :  *  After  I  had  visit- 
ed Europe,  I  returned  to  America.'  "    These  are  the  first  two  examples  of  Murray's 
verbal  corrections,  and  the  only  ones  retained  by  Alger,  In  his  improved,  recopy-righted 
edition  of  Murray's  Exercises.     Yet,  in  each  of  them,  is  the  argumentation   palpably 
false  !     In  the  former,  truly,  which  should  be  who ;  but  not  because  which  is  of  the 
neuter  gender ;  but  because  the  application  of  that  relative  to  persons,  is  now  nearly 
obsolete.    Can  any  grammarian  forget  that,  in  speaking  of  brute  animals,  male  or  fe 
male,  we  commonly  use  which,  and  never  who?     But  if  which  must  needs  be  neuter, 
the  world  is  wrong  in  this. — As  for  the  latter  example,  it  i*  right  as  it  stands  :  and  the 
correction  is,  in  some  sort,  tautological.    The  conjunctive  adverb  after  makes  one  of 
the  actions  subsequent  to  the  other,  and  gives  to  the  visiting  all  the  priority  that  is 
signified  by  the  pluperfect  tense.    "  After  1  visited  Europe,"  is  equivalent  to  "  Whsn  \ 
had  visited  Europe."    The  whole  argument  is  therefore  void. 

2,'i.  These  few  brief  illustrations,  out-of  thousands  that  might  be  adduced  in  proof  of 
the  faultiness  of  the  common  manuals,  the  author  has  reluctantly  introduced,  to  show 
that,  even  in  the  most  popular  books,  the  grammar  of  our  language  has  not  been  treat 
ed  with  that  care  and  ability  which  its  importance  demands.  It  is  hardly  to  be  sup- 
posed that  men  unused  to  a  teacher's  duties,  can  be  qualified  to  compose  such  hooka 
as  will  most  facilitate  his  labours.  Practice  is  a  better  pilot  than  theory.  And  whil«, 
in  resj>ect  to  grammar,  the  evidence*  of  failure  are  constantly  inducing  changes  from 
one  system  to  an  other,  and  almost  daily  giving  birth  to  new  expedients  as  constantly 
to  rnd  in  the  same  disappointment;  perhaps  the  practical  instructions  of  an  experien 
ced  teacher,  long  and  assiduously  devoted  to  the  study,  may  approve  themselves  to 
many,  as  seasonably  supplying  the  aid  and  guidance  which  they  require. 

26.  From  the  doctrines  of  grammar,  novelty  is  rigidly  excluded.  They  consist  of  da 
tails  to  which  taste  can  lend  no  charm,  and  genius  no  embellishment.  A  writer  may 
*xpr«»ss  them  with  neatness  and  perspicuity — their  importance  alone  can  commend 


TIU 


PREFACE. 


them  to  notice.  Yet,  in  drawin-g  his  illustrations  from  the  stores  of  literature,  the 
grammarian  may  select  some  gems  of  thought,  which  will  fasten  on  the  memory  a 
worthy  sentiment,  or  relieve  the  dulness  of  minute  instruction.  Such  examples  have 
beeu  taken  from  various  authors,  and  interspersed  through  the  following1  pages. 

27.  The  moral  elfect  of  early  lessons  being  u  point  of  the  utmost  importance,  it  is  es- 
pecially incumbent  on  all  those  who  are  endeavouring  to  confer  the  benefits  of  intel- 
lectual culture,  to  guard  against  the  admission  or  the  inculcation  ol  any  principle  which 
may  have  an  improper  tendency,  and  be  ultimately  prejudicial  to  those  whom  they  in- 
struct.   In  preparing  this  treatise  for  publication,  the  author  has  been  solicitous  to 
avoid  every  thing  that  could  be  offensive  to  the  most  delicate  and  scrupulous  reader: 
and,  of  the  several  thousands  of  quotations  given,  he  trusts  that  the  greater  part  will 
be  considered  valuable  on  account  of  the  sentiments  they  contain. 

28.  He  has  not  thought  it  needful,  in  a  work  of  this  kind,  to  encumber  his  pages 
with  a  useless  parade  of  names  and  references,  or  to  distinguish  very  minutely  what  is 
copied  and  what  is  original.    All  strict  definitions  of  the  same  thing  are  necessarily 
similar.    The  doctrines  of  the  work  are,  for  the  mo.st  part,  expressed  in  his  own  Ian 
guage,  and  illustrated  by  that  of  others.    Where  authority  was  requisite,  names  have 
been  inserted  ;  and  in  general  also  where  there  was  room.    In  the  doctrinal  parts  of 
the  volume,  not  only  quotations  from  others,  but  most  examples  made  for  the  occasion, 
are  marked  with  guillemots,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  main  text ;  while,  to  al- 
most every  thing  which  is  really  taken  from  any  other  known  writer,  a  name  or  refer- 
ence is  added.     In  the  exercises  for  correction, "few  references  have  been  given  ;  be- 
cause it  Is  no  credit  to  any  author  to  have  written  bad  English.    But  the  intelligent 
reader  will  recognize  as  quotations*  a  large  portion  of  the  examples,  and  know  from 
what  works  they  are  taken.    To  the  schoolboy  this  knowledge  is  neither  important 
nor  interesting. 

29.  Many  of  the  definitions  and  rules  of  grammar  have  so  long  been  public  property, 
and  have  been  printed  under  so  many  names,  that  it  is  diiricult,  if  not  Impossible,  to 
know  to  whom  they  originally  belonged.    Of  these  the  author  has  freely  availed  him- 
self, though  seldom  without  some  amendment;  while  he  has  carefully  abstained  froni^ 
every  thin"  on  which  he  supposed  there  could  now  be  any  individual  claim.     He  has 
therefore  ifewer  personal  obligations  to  acknowledge,  than  most  of  those  who  are  re- 
puted to  have  written  with  sufficient  originality  on  the  subject. 

30.  In  truth,  not  a  line  has  here  been  copied  with  any  view  to  save  the  labour  of  com- 
position ;  for,  not  to  compile  an  English  grammar  from  others  already  extant,  but  to 
compose  one  more  directly  from  the  sources  of  the  art,  was  the  task  which  the  writer 
pro|K)sed  to  himself.     And  though  the  theme  is  not  one  upon  which  a  man  may  hope  to 
write  well  with  little  reflection,  it  is  true,  that  the  parts  of  this  treatise  which  have 
cost  him  the  most  labour,  are  those  which  "  consist  chiefly  of  materials  selected  from 
the  writings  of  others."    These,  however,  are  not  the  didactical  portions  of  the  book, 
but  the  proofs  and  examples  ;  which,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  ancient  gramma 
rians,  ought  to  be  taken  from  other  authors.     But  so  much  Lave  the  makers  of  our 
modern  grammars  been  allowed  to  presume  upon  the  respect  and  acquiescence  of  their, 
readers,  that  the  ancient  exactness  on  this  point  would  often  appear  pedantic.    Many 

Shrase^s  and  sentences  either  original  or  anonymous  will  therefore  be  found  among  the 
lustrations  of  the  following  work  ;  for  it  was  not  supposed  that  any  reader  would  de- 
mand for  every  thing  of  this  kind  the  authority  of  a  great  name.    Anonymous  exam 
pies  are  sufficient  to  elucidate  principles,  if  not  to  establish  them  ;  and  elucidation  is 
often  the  sole  purpose  for  which  an  example  is  needed. 

31.  The  author  is  well  aware  that  no  writer  on  grammar  has  any  right  to  propose 
himself  as  authority  for  what  he  teaches ;  for  every  language,  being  the  common  prop 
erty  of  ail  who  use  it,  ought  to  be  carefully  guarded  against  any  caprice  of  individuals, 
and  especially  against  that  which  might  attempt  to  impose  erroneous  or  arbitrary  defi- 
nitions and  rules.     "  Since  the  matter  of  which  we  are  treating,''  says  the  philologist 
of  Salamanca,  "  is  to  be  verified,  first  by  reason,  and  then  by  testimony  and  usage,  none 
oufjht  to  wonder  if  we  sometimes  deviate  from  the  track  of  greatmen  ;  for,  with  what- 
ever authority  any  grammarian  may  weigh  with  me,  unless  he  shall  have  confirmed 
his  assertions  by  reason  and  also  by  examples,  he  shall  win  no  confidence  in  respect  to 
grammar.    For,  as  Seneca  says,  Epistle  95,  '  Grammarians  are  the  guardians,  not  the  au- 
thors, of  language.'  " — Minerva,  Lib.  i.  Cap.  il.     Yet,  as  what  is  intuitively  seen  to  be 
true  or  false,  is  already  sufficiently  proved  or  detected,  many  points  in  grammar  ne-ed 
nothing  more  than  to  be  clearly  stated  and  illustrated  ;   nay.  it  would  seem  an  inju- 
rious reflection  on  the  understanding  of  the  reader,  to  accumulate  proofs  of  what  can- 
not but  be  evident  to  all  who  speak  the  language. 

32.  Among  men  of  the  same  profession,  there  js  an  unavoidable  rivalry,  so  far  as 
they  become  competitors  for  the  same  prize ;  but  .in  competition  there  is  nothing  dis 
honourable,  while  excellence  alone  obtains  distinction,  and  no  advantage  is  sought  by 
unfair  means.     It  is  evident  that  we  ought  to  account  him  the  best  grammarian,  who 
nas  the  most  completely  executed  the  worthiest  design.    But  no  worthy  design  can 
need  a  false  apology  ;  and  it  is  worse  than  idle  to  prevaricate.    That  is  but  a  spurious 
modesty,  which  prompts  a  man  to  disclaim  in  one  way  what  he  assumes  in  an  other 
— or  to  underrate  the  duties  of  his  office,  that  he  may  boast  of  havir.g  "  done  all  that 
could  reasonably  be  expected."     Whoever  professes  to  have  improved  the  science  ot 
Knglimi  grammar,  must  claim  to  icnow  more  of  tho  nrmtt&r  than  the  generality  of  Kng 


PREFACE.  U 

lish  grammarians  ;  and  he  who  begins  with  saving  that  "little  can  be  expected"  from 
the  office  he  assumes,  must  be  wrongfully  contradicted  when  he  is  held  to  have  done 
much.  Neither  the  ordinary  power  of  speech,  nor  even  the  ability  to  write  respecta- 
bly on  common  topics,  makes  a  man  a  critic  among  critics,  or  enables  him  to  judge  of 
literary  merit.  And  if,  by  virtue  of  these  qualifications  alone,  a  man  Will  become  a 
grammarian  or  a  connoisseur,  he  can  hold  the  rank  only  by  courtesy — a  courtesy 
which  is  content  to  degrade  the  character,  that  his  inferior  pretensions  may  be  accept- 
ed and  honoured  under  the  name. 

33.  By  the  force  of  a  late  popular  example,  still  too  widely  influential,  grammatical 
authorship  has  been  reduced  in  the  view  of  many,  to  little  or  nothing  more  than  a  serv- 
ing-up  of  materials  anonymously  borrowed ;  and,  what  is  most  remarkable,  even  fur  an 
Indifferent  performance  of  this  low  office,   not  only  unnamed  reviewers,  but  several 
writers  of  note,  have  not  scrupled  to  bestow  the  highest  praise  of  grammatical  excel- 
lence!    And  thus  the  palm  of  superior  skill  in  grammar,  has  been  borne  away  by  a 
professed  compiler  ;  who  had  so  mean  an  opinion  of  what  his  theme  required,  as  to 
deny  it  even  the  common  courtesies  of  compilation.     What  marvel  is  it,  that,  under  tne 
wing  of  such  authority,  many  writers  have  sprung  up  to  improve  upon  thismo^t  happy 
design  ;  while  all  who  were  competent  to  the  task,  have  been  discouraged  from  attempt- 
ing any  thing  like  a  complete  grammar  of  our  language  1    What  moiive  shall  excite  a 
man  to  long  continued  diligence,  where  such  notions  prevail  as  give  mastership  no 
hope  of  preference,  and  where  the  praise  of  his  ingenuity  and  the  reward  of  his  labour 
must  needs  be  inconsiderable,  till  some  honoured  compiler  usurp  them  both,  and  bnng 
his  "  most  useful  mutter"  before  the  world  under  better  auspices  ?     If  the  love  of 
learning  supply  such  a  motive,  who  that  has  generously  yielded  to  the  impulse,  will 
not  now,  like  Johnson,  feel  himself  red  nce-d  to  an  "humble  drudge"— *>r,  like  Peiizo- 
nius,  apologize  for  the  apparent  folly  of  devoting  his  time  to  such  a  subject  as  grammar  1 

34.  The  first  edition  of  this  work  was  published  in  1823  ;  since  which  time,  (within 
the  space  of  nine  years,)  thirty  or  forty  new  compends,  mostly  professing  to  be  ab- 
stracts of  Murray  with  improvements,  have  been  added  to  our   list  of  English  gram- 
mars.   The  author  has  examined  twenty-seven  of  them,  and  seen  advertisements  of 
perhaps  a  dozen  more.     Being  various  in  character,  they  will  of  course  be  variously 
estimated  ;  but,  so  far  as  he  can  judge,  they  are,  without  exception,  works  of  little  01 
no  real  merit,  and  not  likely  to  be  much  patronized  or  long  preserved  from  oblivion 
For  which  reason  he  would  have  been  inclined  entirely*  to  disregard  the  petty  depre- 
dations which  the  writers  of  several  of  them  have  committed  upon  the  following  di- 
gest, were  it  not  possible  that  by  such  a  frittering-awayof  his  work  he  himself  might 
one  day  seem  to  some  to  have  copied  that  from  others  which  was  first  taken  from  him. 
Trusting  to  make  it  manifest  to  men  of  learning,  that  in  the  production  of  these  Institutes 
far  mo*e  has  been  done  for  the  grammar  of  our  language,  than  any  single  hand  had 
before  achieved  within  the  limits  of  a  school-book,  and  that  with  perfect  fairness  to- 
wards other  writers  ;  he  cannot  but  feel  a  wish  that  the  integrity  of  his  text  should  be 
preserved,  whatever  else  may  befall ;  and  that  the  multitude  of  scribblers  who  judge 
it  so  needful  to  remodel  Murray's  defective  compilation,  would  forbear  to  publish  ua 
der  his  name  or  their  own  what  they  find  only  in  the  following  pages. 

35.  The  mere  rivalry  of  their  authorship  is  no  subject  of  concern  ;  but  it  is  enough 
for  any  ingenuous  man  to  have  toiled  for  years  in  solitudo  to  complete  a  work  of  pub- 
lic utility,  without  entering  a  warfare  for  life  to  defend  and  preserve  it.    Accidental 
coincidences  in  books  are  unfrequent,  and  not  often  such  as  to  excite  the  suspicion  of 
the  most  sensitive.    But,  though  the  criteria  of  plagiarism  are  neither  obscure  nordis- 

Jutable,  it  Is  not  easy,  in  this  beaten  track  of  literature,  for  persons  of  little  reading  to 
now  what  is,  or  is  not,  original.  Dates  must  bo  accurately  observed.  Many  things 
must  be  minutely  compared.  And  who  will  undertake  such  a  task,  but  he  that  is  per- 
sonally interested  1  Of  the  thousands  who  are  forced  into  the  paths  of  learning,  few 
ever  care  to  know,  by  what  pioneer,  or  with  what  labour,  their  way  was  cast  up  fot 
them.  And  even  of  those  who  are  honestly  engaged  in  teaching,  not  many  are  ade- 
quate judges  of  the  comparative  merits  of  the  great  number  of  books  on  this  subject. 
The  common  notions  of  mankind  conform  more  easily  to  fashion  than  to  truth  ;  and, 
even  of  some  things  within  their  reach,  the  majority  seem  content  to  take  their  opin- 
ions upon  trust.  Hence,  it  is  vain  to  expect  that  that  which  is  intrinsically  best,  will 
be  every  where  preferred  ;  or  that  which  is  meritoriously  elaborate,  adequately  appre 
ciated.  But  common  sense  might  dictate,  that  learning  is  not  encouraged  or  respected 
by  those  who,  for  the  making  of  books,  prefer  a  pair  of  scissors  to  the  pen. 

36.  The  real  history  of  grammar  is  little  known;  and  many  erroneous  Impressions 
are  entertained  concerning  it:  because  the  story  of  the  systems  most  generally  receiv- 
ed, has  never  been  fully  told;  and  that  of  a  multitude  now  gone  to  oblivion,  was  never 
worth  telling.     In  the  distribution  of  grammatical  fame,  which  has  chiefly  been  made 
by  the  hand  of  interest,  we  have  had  a  strange  illustration  of  the  saying  :  *'  Unto  every 
one  that  hath  shall  be  given,  and  he  shall  have  abundance  ;  but  from  him  that  hath 
not,  shall  be  taken  away  even  that  which  he  hath."     Some  whom  fortune  has  made 
popular,  have  been  greatly  overrated,  if  learning  and  talents  are  to  be  taken  into  the 
account;  since  it  is  manifest,  that  with  no  extraordinary  claims  to  either,  they  have 
taken  the  very  foremost  rank  among  grammarians,  and  thrown  the  learning  and  talents 
of  others  into  the  shade,  or  made  them  tributary  to  their  own  success  and  popularity. 

37.  Few  writers  on  grammar  have  been  more  noted  than  Lily  and  Murray     A  la\v 


p 
k 


I  PREFACE. 

was  made  in  England  by  Henry  the  Eighth,  commanding  Lily's  grammar  "  only 
everywhere  to  be  taught,  for  the  use  of  learners  and  for  the  hurt  in  changing  of  schoolo 
maisters."— Pref.  to  Lily,  p.  xiv.  Being  long  kept  in  force  by  means  of  a  special  in 
quiry  directed  to  be  made  by  the  bishops  at  their  stated  visitations,  this  law,  for  three 
hundred  years,  imposed  the  book  on  all  the  established  schools  of  the  realm.  Yet  it  is 
certain,  that  about  one  half  of  what  has  thus  gone  under  the  name  of  Lily,  ("  because," 
says  one  of  the  patentees,  "he  had  so  considerable  a  hand  in  the  composition,")  was 
written  by  Dr.  Colet,  by  Erasmus,  or  by  others  who  improved  the  work  after  Lily's 
death.  (See  Ward's  Preface  to  the  book,  1793)  Ana  o'  tne  other  half,  history  inci 
dentally  tells,  that  neither  the  scheme  nor  the  text  was  original.  The  Printer's  Gram- 
mar, London,  17«7,  speaking  of  the  art  of  type-foundery,  says:  "The  Italians  in  a 
short  lime  brought  it  to  th*rt  perfection,  that  in  the  beginning  of  the  year  H74,  they 
east  a  letter  not  much  inferior  to  the  best  types  of  the  present  age  ;  as  may  be  seen  in 
a  Latin  Grammar  written  by  Omnibonus  Leonicenus,  and  printed  at  Padua  on  the  14th. 
cf  January,  1474  ;  from  tekom  our  grammarian,  Lily,  has  taken  the  entire  scheme  of  his 
grammar,  and  transcribed  <A«  greatest  part  thereof,  without  paying  any  regard  to  the 
memory  of  this  author.'11  See  also  the  History  of  Printing.  8vo,  London,  1770.  This  is 
the  grammar  which  bears  upon  its  titlepage  :  Quam  solar/i  Regia  Majtstag  in  omnibus 
tcholis  docendam  prcecipit. 

38.  Murray  was  an  intelflgent  and  very  worthy  man,  to  whose  various  labours  in 
the  compilation  of  books  our  schools  are  under  many  obligations.    But  in  original 
.hought  and  critical  skill  he  fell  far  below  most  of  "  the  authors  to  whom,"  he  con- 
fesses, "  the  grammatical  part  of  his  compilation  is  principally  indebted  for  its  mate- 
rials ;  namely,  Harris,  Johnson,  Lowth,  Priestley,  Beattie,  Sheridan,  Walker,  Coote, 
Blair,  and  Campbell." — Introd.  to  Gram-    It  is  certain  and  evident  that  he  entered  upon 
his  task  with,  a  very  insufficient  preparation.  His  biography  informs  us,  that  "  Grammar 
did  not  particularly  engage  his  attention,  until  a  short  time  before  the  publication  of 
his  first  work  on  that  subject;"  that  "  His  grammar,  as  it  appeared  in  the  first  edition, 
;vas  completed  in  rather  less  than  a  year — though  he  had  an  intervening  illness,  which 
for  several  weeks  stopped  the  progress  of  the  work  ;"  and  that  "  the  Exercises  and 
£ey  were  also  composed  in  about  a  yeai  "    From  the  very  first  sentence  of  his  book, 
it  appears  that  he  entertained  but  a  low  and  most  erroneous  idea  of  the  duties  of  that 
lort  of  character  in  which  he  was  about  to  come  before  the  public.    He  improperly 
.magi ned,  as  many  others  have  done,  that  "little  can  be  expected"  from  a  modern 
grammarian,  or  (as  he  chose  to  express  it)  "  from  a  new  compilation,  besides  a  careful 
telection  of  the  most  useful  matter,  and  some  degree  of  improvement  in  the  mode  of 
idapting  it  to  the  understanding,  and  the   gradual  progress  of  learners." — Introd.  to 
Gram.    As  if,  to  be  master  of  his  own  art — to  think  and  write  well  himself,  were  no 
J»art  of  a  grammarian's  business  !  And  again,  as  if  the  jewels  of  scholarship,  thus  care- 
fully selected,  could  need  a  burnish  or  a  foil  from  other  hands  than  those  which  fash 
k>ned  them ! 

39.  Murray's  general  idea  of  the  doctrines  of  grammar  was  judicious.    He  attempt- 
ed no  broad  innovation  on  what  had  been  previously  taught ;  for  he  had  neither  the 
vanity  to  suppose  he  could  give  currency  to  novelties,  nor  the  folly  to  waste  his  time 
in  labours  utterly  nugatory.    By  turning  his  own  abilities  to  their  best  account,  he 
<eems  to  have  done  much  to  promote  and  facilitate  the  study  of  our  language.    But 
nis  notion  of  grammatical  authorship,  cuts  off  from  it  all  pretence  to  literary  merit,  for 
the  sake  of  doing  good  ;  and,  taken  in  any  other  sense  than  as  a  forced  apology  for  his 
own  assumptions,  his  language  on  this  point  is  highly  injurious  towards  the  very  au- 
ihors  whom  he  copied.    To  justify  himself,  he  ungenerously  places  them,  in  common 
A'ith  others,  under  a  degrading  necessity  which  no  able  grammarian  ever  felt,  and 
which  every  man  of  genius  or  learning  must  repudiate.    If  none  of  our  older  grammars 
Jisprove  his  assertion,  it  is  time  to  have  a  new  one  that  will ;  for,  to  expect  the  perfec- 
tion of  grammar  from  him  who  cannot  treat  the  subject  in  a  style  at  once  original  and 
pure,  is  absurd.    He  says,  "  The  greater  part  of  an  English  grammar  must  necessarily 
be  a  compilation ;"  and  adds,  with  reference  to  his  own,  "originality  belongs  to  but  a 
«mall  portion  of  it.    This  I  have  acknowledged  ;  and  I  trust  this  acknowledgement  will 
protect  me  from  all  attacks,  grounded  on  any  supposed  unjust  and  irregular  assump- 

'  lions." — Letter,  1811.  The  acknowledgement  on  which  he  thus  relies  does  not  appear 
lo  have  been  made,  till  his  grammar  had  gone  through  several  editions.  It  was  then 
inserted  as  follows  :  "  In  a  work  which  professes  itself  to  be  a  compilation,  and  which, 
from  the  nature  and  design  of  it,  must  consist  chiefly  of  materials  selected  from  the 
writings  of  others,  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  apologize  for  the  use  which  the  compiler 
has  made  of  his  predecessors'  labours,  or  for  omitting  to  insert  their  names." — Introd. 
to  Gram. 

40.  For  the  nature  and  design  of  a  book,  whatever  they  may  be,  the  author  alone  is 
answerable ;  but  the  nature  and  design  of  grammar,  are  no  less  repugnant  to  the 
strain  of  this  apology,  than  to  the  vast  number  of  errors  and  defects  which  were  over- 
looked by  Murray  in  his  work  of  compilation.    There  is  no  part  of  the  volume  more 
accurate,  than  that  which  he  literally  copied  from  Lovvth.    To  the  Short  Introduction 
alone  he  was  indebted  for  more  than  a  hundred  and  twenty  paragraphs  ;  and  even  in 
these  there  are  many  things  obviously  erroneous.     Many  of  the  best  practical  notes 
were  taken  from  Priestley ;  yet  it  was  he,  at  whose  doctrines  were  pointed  most  of 
«h-»se  "positions  and  discussions,"  which  alone  the  author  claims  as  original.    To 


fame,  however,  his  own  alterations  may  have  given  rise  ;  for,  where  he  "  persuades 
himself  he  M  not  destitute  of  originality,"  he  is  often  arguing  against  the  text  of  his 
own  earlier  editions.  Webster's  well-known  complaint--  <>f  Murray's  unfairness,  had 
a  far  better  cause  than  requital  ;  for  there  was  no  generosity  in  ascribing  them  to 
peevishness,  though  the  passages  in  question  were  not  worth  copying.  On  perspicu- 
ity and  accuracy,  about  sixty  pages  were  extracted  from  Blair;  and  it  requires  no  ereat 
critical  acumen  to  discover,  that  they  are  miserably  deficient  in  both.  On  the  law  of 
language,  there  are  fifteen  pages  from  Campbell;  which,  with  a  few  exceptions,  are 
well  written.  The  rules  for  spelling  Are  the  same  as  Walker's:  the  third  one,  how- 
ever, is  a  gross  blunder  ;  and  the  fourth,  a  needless  repetition.  Were  this  a  place  for 
minute  criticism,  blemishes  almost  innumerable  might  be  pointed  out.  It  might  easily 
be  shown  that  almost  every  rule  laid  down  in  the  book  for  the  observance  of  the 
learner,  was  repeatedly  violated  by  the  hand  of  the  master.  Nor  is  there  among  all 
those  who  have  since  abridged  or  modified  the  work,  an  abler  grammarian  than  he  who 
compiled  it.  Who  will  pretend  that  Flint,  Alden,  Comly,  Jaudon,  Russell,  Bacon, 
Lyon,  Miiier,  Alger,  Maltby,  Ingersoll,  Fisk,  Greenleaf,  Merchant,  Kirkham,  Cooper, 
Greene,  Woodworth,  Smith,  or  Frost,  has  exhibited  greater  skill  ?  It  is  civrious  to  ob- 
serve, how  frequently  a  grammatical  blunder  committed  by  Murray,  or  souie  one  of 
his  predecessors,  has  escaped  the  notice  of  all  these,  as  well  as  of  many  others  who 
have  found  it  easier  to  copy  him  than  to  write  for  themselves. 

41.  But  Murray's  grammatical  works,  being  at  once  extolled  in  the  reviews,  and 
made  common  stock  in  trade — being  published,  both  in  England  and  in  America,  by 
booksellers  of  the  most  extensive  correspondence,  and  highly  commended  evk,i  by 
those  who  were  most  interested  in  the  sale  of  them — have  been  eminently  successful 
with  the  public  ;  and  In  the  opinion  of  the  world,  success  is  the  strongest  proof  of 
merit.    Nor  has  the  force  of  this  argument  been  overlooked  by  those  who  have  writ- 
ten in  aid  of  his  popularity.     It  is  the  strong  point  in  most  of  the  commendations  which 
have  been  bestowed  upon  Murray  as  a  grammarian.     A  recent  eulogist  compute,  that 
"at  least  five  millions  of  copies  of  his  various  school-books  have  been  printed  ;''  par- 
ticularly commends  him  for  his  "  candour  and  liberality  towards  rival  authors  ;"  av'ers 
that  "  he  went  on,  examining  and  correcting  his  grammar,  through  all  its  forty  editions 
till  he  brought  it  to  a  degree  of  perfection  which  will  render  it  as  permanent  as  the 
English  language  itself;"  censures  (and  not  without  reason)  the  "  presumption"  of 
those  "  superficial  critics"  who  have  attempted  to  amend  the  work,  and  usurp  his 
honours  ;  and,  regarding  the  compiler's  confession  of  his  indebtedness  to  others,  but 
as  a  mark  of  "  his  exemplary  diffidence  of  his  own  merits,"  adds  (in  very  bad  English,) 
"  Perhaps  there  never  was  an  author  whose  success  and  fame  were  more  unexpected  by 
himself,  than  Lindley  Murray." — The  Friend,  Vol.  iii.  p.  33. 

42.  In  a  New- York  edition  of  Murray's  grammar,  printed  in  1812,  there  was  inserted 
a  "  caution  to  the  public,"  by  Collins  &.  Co.,  his  American  correspondents  and  publish- 
ers, in  which  are  set  forth  the  unparalleled  success  and  merit  of  the  work,  "as  it 
came  in  purity  from  the  pen  of  the/author ;"  with  an  earnest  remonstrance  against  the 
several  revised  editions  which  had  appeared  at  Boston,  Philadelphia,  and  other  places, 
and  against  the  unwarrantable  liberties  taken  by  American  teachers,  in  altering  the 
work,  under  pretence  of  improving  it.    In  this  article  it  is  stated,  "  that  the  whole  of 
these  mutilated  editions  have  been  seen  and  examined  by  Lindley  Murray  himself,  and 
that  they  have  met  with  his  decided  disapprobation.     Every  rational  mind,"  continue 
these  gentlemen,  "will  agree  with  him,  that,  'the  rights  of  living  authors,  and  the 
interests  of  science  ana  literature,  demand  the  abolition  of  this  ungenerous  practice.'  " 
Hore,  then,  we  have  the  opinion  and  feeling  of  Murray  himself  upon  this  tender  point 
of  right.    Here  we  see  the  tables  turned,  and  other  men  judging  it  "  scarcely  necessa- 
ry to  apologize  for  the  use  which  they  have  made  of  their  predecessors'  labours." 

43.  It  is  not  intended  by  the  introduction  of  these  notices,  to  impute  to  Murray  any 
thing  more  or  less  than  what  his  own  words  plainly  imply  ;  except  those  inaccuracies 
and  deficiencies  which  still  disgrace  his  work  as  a  literary  performance,  and  which  of 
course  he  did  not  discover.     He  himself  knew  that  he  had  not  brought  the  book  to 
such  perfection  as  has  been  ascribed  to  it ;  for,  by  way  of  apology  for  his  frequent  al- 
terations, he  says,  "Works  of  this  nature  admit  of  repeated  improvements;  and  are, 
perhaps,  never  complete."    But  it  is  due  to  truth  to  correct  erroneous  impressions  ; 
and,  in  order  to  obtain  from  some  an  impartial  examination  of  the  following  pages,  it 
seems  necessary  first  to  convince  them  that  it  is  possible,  to  compose  a  better  grammar 
than  Murray's,  without  being  particularly  indebted  to  him.    If  this  treatise  is  not  such, 
a  great  deal  of  time  has  been  thrown  away  upon  a  useless  project :  and  if  it  is,  the 
achievement  is  no  fit  subject  for  either  pride  or  envy.    It  differs  from  his,  as  a  new 
map,  drawn  from  actual  and  minute  surveys,  differs  from  an  old  one,  compiled  chiefly 
from  others  still  older  and  confessedly  still  more  imperfect.    The  region  and  the  scope 
lire  essentially  the  same;  the  tracing  and  the  colouring  are  more  original;  and  (if  the 
reader  can  pardon  the  suggestion)  perhaps  more  accurate  and  vivid. 

44.  He  who  makes  a  new  grammar,  does  nothing  for  the  advancement  of  learning, 
tftiless  his  performance  excel  all  earlier  ones  designed  for  the  same  purjx)se  ;  and  no- 
Ihhig  for  his  own  honour,  unless  such  excellence  result  from  the  exercise  of  his  owu 
Ingenuity  and  taste.     A  good  style  naturally  commends  itself  to  every  reader— even  to 
him  who  cannot  tell  why  it  is  worthy  of  preference.    Hence  there  is  reason  to  believe, 
'.hat  the  true  princip'cs  of  practical  grammar,  deduced  from  custom  and  sanctioned  by 


Xll  PREFACE. 

time,  will  never  be  generally  superseded  by  any  thing  which  individual  caprice  may 
substitute.  In  the  republic  of  letters,  there  will  alwny*  be  some  who  can  distinguish 
merit ;  and  it  is  impossible  that  these  should  eve-r  be  converted  to  any  whimsical  the- 
ory of  language,  which  goes  to  make  void  the  learning  of  past  ages.  There  will  al- 
ways be  some  who  can  discern  the  difference  between  originality  of  style,  and  inno- 
vation in  doctrine — between  a  due  re.gard  to  the  opinions  of  others,  and  an  JK'tuul  usur- 
pation of  their  text ;  and  it  is  incredible  that  these  should  ever  be  satisfied  with  any 
mere  compilation  of  grammar,  or  with  any  such  authorship  as  either  confesses  or  be- 
trays the  writer's  own  incompetence.  For  it  is  not  true,  that  "an  English  grammar 
must  necessarily  be,"  in  any  considerable  degree,  if  at  all,  u  a  compilation  ;"  nay,  on 
such  a  theme,  and  in  "  the  grammatical  part1'  of  the  work,  all  compilation,  beyond  a 
fair  use  of  authorities  regularly  quoted,  or  of  materials  either  voluntarily  furnished  or 
free  to  all,  most  unavoidably  implies — not  conscious  "ability,"  generously  doing  hon- 
our to  rival  merit— nor  "exemplary  diffidence,"  modestly  veiling  its  own  — but  inade- 
quate skill  and  inferior  talents,  bribing  the  public  by  the  spoils  of  genius,  and  seek- 
ing precedence  by  such  means  as  not  even  the  purest  desire  of  doing  good  can  justify. 

45.  All  praise  of  excellence  must  needs  be  comparative,  because  the  thing  itself  is 
so.  To  excel  in  grammar,  is  but  to  know  better  than  others  wherein  grammatical  ex- 
cellence consists.  Hence  there  is  no  fixed  point  of  perfection  beyond  which  such 
learning  m^y  not  be  carried.  The  limit  to  improvement  is  not  so  much  in  the  nature 
of  the  subject,  as  in  the  powers  of  the  mind,  and  in  the  inducements  to  exert  them 
upon  a  theme  so  humble  and  so  uninviting.  Dr.  Johnson  suggests  in  his  masterly 
preface,  "  that  a  whole  life  cannot  be  spent  upon  syntax  and  etymology,  and  that  even 
a  whole  life  would  not  be  sufficient.''  Who  then  will  suppose,  in  the  face  of  such 
facts  anil  confessions  as  have  been  exhibited,  that  either  in  the  faulty  publications  of 
Murray,  or  among  the  various  modifications  of  them  by  other  hands,  we  have  any 
such  work  as  deserves  to  be  made  a  permanent  standard  of  instruction  in  English 
grammar?— The  author  of  this  treatise  will  not  pretend  that  it  is  perfect;  though  he 
has  bestowed  upon  it  no  inconsiderable  pains,  tnat  the  narrow  limits  to  which  it  must 
needs  be  confined,  might  be  filled  up  to  the  utmost  advantage  of  the  learner,  as  well 
as  to  the- best  direction  mid  greatest  relief  of  the  teacher. 

4G.  A  KEY  to  the  Oral  Exercises  in  False  Syntax,  is  inserted  in  the  Grammar,  that 
the  pupil  may  i  e  enabled  fully  to  prepare  himself  for  that  kind  of  class  recitations. 
Being  acquainted  with  the  rule,  and  having  seen  the  correction,  he  may  be  expected 
to  state  the  error  and  the  reason  for  the  change,  without  embarrassment  or  delay. 

A  separate  KE,  to  the  Exercises  for  Writing,  is  published  for  the  convenience  of 
teachers  and  private  learners.  For  an  obvious  reason  this  Key  should  not  be  put 
into  the  hands  of  the  schoolboy.  Being  a  distinct  volume,  it  may  be  had,  bound  by 
itself,  or  with  the  Grammar. 

47.  From  the  first  edition  of  the  following  treatise,  there  was  made  by  the  author, 
for  the  use  of  young  learners,  a  brief  abstract-  entitled,  "  The  Viral  JAt-c.a  of  English 
Grammar;"  in  which  are  embraced  all  the  leading  doctrines  of  the  original  work, 
with  a  new  series  of  examples  for  their  application  iii  parsing.    Much  that  is  important 
in  the  grammar  of  the  language,  was  necessarily  excluded  from  this  epitome;  nor 
was  it  designed  for  those  who  can  learn  a  larger  book  without  wearing  it  out.    But 
economy,  as  well  as  convenience,  demands  small  and  cheap  treatises  for  children ;  and 
those  teachers  who  approve  of  this  system  of  grammatical  instruction,  will  find  many 
reasons  for  preierring  the  First  Lints  to  any  other  compend,  as  an  introduction  to  the 
study  of  these  Institutes.    , 

48.  Having  undertaken  and  prosecuted  this  work,  with  the  hope  of  facilitating  the 
study  of  the  English  Language,  and  thus  promoting  the  improvement  of  the  young, 
the  author  now  presents  his  finished  labours  to  the  candour  and  discernment  of  those 
to  whom  ts  committed  the  important  business  of  instruction.    How  far  he  has  suc- 
ceeded in  the  execution  of  his  design,  is  willingly  left  to  the  just  decision  of  those 
wno  are  q ualified  to  judge. 

GOOLD  BROWN. 
JWw  York,  ]832. 


CONTENTS, 


Page  I  1 

Definition  and  Division  of  the  Subject    15  |  Rule  XI.  Of  the  Verb  and  joint  nomi- 


PART  I.— ORTHOGRAPHY. 
Of  Letters 

Rules  for  the  use  of  Capitals 
Of  Syllables  and  Words 
Of  Spel'.ing—  Rules  for  Spelling 
Questions  on  Orthography 
Exercises  in  Orthography 

PART  II.— ETYMOLOGY. 
Of  the  Parts  of  Speech 
Examples  for  Parsing,  Chapter  I. 
Of  the  Article 
Of  the  Noun    - 

Persons 

Numbers 

Genders 

Cases  -  - 

Examples  for  Parsing,  Chapter  II. 
Of  the  Adjective 

Examples  for  Parsing,  Chapter  III.    - 
Of  the  Pronoun 

Examples  for  Parsing,  Chapter  IV.    - 
Of  the  Verb      - 

Moods 

Tenses 

Persons  and  Numbers    - 

Conjugation  of  Verbs 

Passive  Verbs 

Irregular  Verbs    - 

Defective  Verbs  - 
Of  the  Participle 

Examples  for  Parsing,  Chapter  V. 
Of  the  Adverb 
Of  the  Conjunction 
Of  the  Preposition 
Of  the  Interjection 
Examples  for  Parsing,  Chapter  VI. 
Questions  on  Etymology 
Exercises  in  Etymology 

PART  III.— SYNTAX. 

Introductory  Definitions 

Rules  of  Syntax 

Examples  for  Parsing,  Chapter  VII.  - 

Rules  of  Syntax,  with  Exam  ,  Excep., 
Notes,  Obs.,  and  False  Syntax 

Rule  I.  Of  Articles 

Rule  II.  Of  the  Nominative  to  a  Verb  126 

Rule  III.  Of  words  in  Apposition 

Rule  IV.  Of  Adjectives  -   . 

Rule  V.  Of  the  Pronoun  and  antece 
dent 

Rule  VI.  Of  the  Pronoun  and  collective 
noun 

Rule  VII.  Of  the  Pronoun  and  joint  an- 
tecedents 

Rule  VIII.  Of  the  Pronoun  and  dis- 
junct antecedents 

Rule  IX.  Of  the  Verb  and  nominative  148 

Rule  X.  Of  tbn  Verb  and  collective 
noun 


T           11 

natives           -                                   -    153 

K  .          JD 

15 

Rnle  XII  Of  the  Verb  and  dlrjonct 

i  (\ 

nominatives                   -              *     -     157 

il) 
17 

Rule  XIII.  Of  Verbs  connected         -    159 

19 

Rule  XIV.  Of  Participles        -            -     161 

20 

Rule  XV.  Of  Adverbs    -                    -    165 

01 

Rule  XVI.  Of  Conjunctions    -           -    169 

3U 

Rule  XVII.  Of  Prepositions    -            -    172 

27 

Rule  XVIII.  Of  Interjections             -    175 

-      27 

Rule  XIX.  Of  the  Possessive  Case    -    176 

-      28 

Rule  XX.  Of  the  Objective  Case  after  a 

-      30 

Verb  or  Participle    -            -            -     180 

-      31 

Rule  XXI.  Of  the  Same  Case  after  a 

-      32 

Verb  as  before  it      -            -            -     182 

-      33 

Rule  XXII.  Of  the  Objective  Case  after 

-      35 

u  Preposition             -            -            -     184 

-      30 

Rule  XX  II  I.  Of  the  Infinitive  Mood      186 

-      38 

Rule  XXIV.  Of  the  Infinitive  after  bid, 

-       40 

dare,  feel,  &c.                                            188 

-      43 

Rule   X'XV.  Of  the  Nominative  Case 

-      45 

Absolute        -           -           -           -     188 

-       50 

Rule  XXVI.  Of  the  Subjunctive  Mood  19C 

-       51 

Promiscuous  Examples  of  False  Syn- 

-      53 

tax                             -      f  •           •    192 

-       54 

General  Rule  of  Syntax         -           -    196 

-       55 
-      59 

Examples  for  Parsing,  Chapter  VIII.      199 
Questions  on  Syntax                •            -    203 

-  ^  72 

Exercises  in  Syntax         -                    -    205 

-      75 

PART  IV.-PROSODY.         218 

-      80 

Of  PUNCTUATION               -            -    218 

84 

Of  the  Comma             -           -            -    218 

87 

Of  the  Semicolon         •            -            -223 

Of  the  Colon                 -           -           -    223 

Qfl 

Of  the  Period,  and  the  Dash  -           -    224 

yu 
91 

Of  the  Note  of  Interrogation,  and  the 

91 

Note  of  Exclamation           -           -    225 

95 

Of  the  Parenthesis       -           -           -    226 

-    100 

Of  the  Other  Marks    -            -            -    227 

Of  UTTERANCE        -            •            -228 

104 

Of  Pronunciation         -           -           -228 

-    104 

Of  Elocution                 •           -           •    2i>8 

-    105 

Of  FIGURES                -            -            -    229 

-    107 

Of  Figures  of  Etymology         -           -    229 

jp., 

Of  Figures  of  Syntax                •            •    230 

-    121 

Of  Figures  of  Rhetoric             •           •    232 

-    122 

Of  VERSIFICATION             •            -    235 

;rb  126 

Of  Iambic  Verse           -       •     -           -    236 

-    128 

Of  Trochaic  Verse       -           -           -237 

-    130 

Of  Anapjpsiic  Verse     -            -            -239 

;e 

Of  Dactylic  Verse         -            -            -    239 

-    136 

Examples  for  Parsing,  Chapter  IX.   -     239 

ve 

Questions  on  Prosody              -            -    246 

-    145 

Exercises  in  Prosody    -           -            -    248 

m- 

A  KEY  to  the  Oral  Exercises  in  False 

140 

Syntax                                    -            -     2t52 

is- 

APPENDIX  I.  Of  the  Sounds  of  the 

-    147 

Letters                   -               -           -    285 

ve  148 

APPENDIX  11.  Of  DerlvMtion          -    21*4 

ve 

APPENDIX  III.  Of  Sivl«J        -            •    305 

-     i52    APPENDIX  IV  Of  Poetic  Dlotiwi    •    33H 

THB 

INSTITUTES 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR  is  the  art  of  speaking  and  writing 
the  English  language  correctly. 

It  is  divided  into  four  parts ;  namely,  Orthography,  Ety- 
mology, Syntax,  and  Prosody. 

Orthography  treats  of  letters,  syllables,  separate  words, 
and  spelling. 

Etymology  treats  of  the  different  parts  of  speech,  and 
their  classes  and  modifications. 

Syntax  treats  of  the  relation,  agreement,  government, 
and  arrangement,  of  words  in  sentences. 

Prosody  treats  of  punctuation,  utterance,  figures,  and 
versification. 


PART  I. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Orthography  treats  of  letters,  syllables,  separate  words, 
and  spelling. 

OF  LETTERS. 

A  Letter  is  a  character  used  in  printing  or  writing,  to 
represent  an  articulate  sound. 

An  articulate  sound,  is  a  sound  of  the  human  voice,  used 
m  speaking. 

The  letters  in  the  English  alphabet,  are  twenty-six ; 
Aa,Bb,  C  c,Dd,Ee,Ff,  G  g,  H  h,  I  i,  J j,  K  k, 
L  /,  Mm,Nn,  O  o,  P  p,  Q  q,  R  r,  S  s,  T 't,  Uu,  Vv, 
Ww,  Xx,  Yy}  Zz? 

9  For  the  names  and  powers  of  the  letters,  see  Appendix  L 


16 

C/,A33ES    OF    LETTERS. 

y 

The  letters  are  divided  into  two  general  classes,  vowels 
and  consonants. 

A.  vowel  is  a  letter  which  forms  a  perfect  sound  when 
uttered  alone. 

A  consonant  is  a  letter  which  cannot  be  perfectly  uttered 
till  joined  to  a  vowel. 

The  vowels  are  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  and  sometimes  w  and  y. 
All  the  other  letters  are  consonants. 

W  and  y  are  consonants  when  they  precede  a  vowel 
heard  in  the  same  syllable ;  as  in  wine,  twine,  whine,  ye, 
yet,  youth  :  in  all  other  cases,  they  are  vowels ;  as  in  newly } 
dewy,  eyebrow. 

CLASSES    OF    CONSONANTS. 

The  consonants  are  divided  into  mutes  and  semivowels. 

A  mute  is  a  consonant  which' cannot  be  sounded  at  all  with 
out  a  vowel.  The  mutes  are  b,  d,  k,  p,  q,  t,  and  c  and  g  hard. 

A  semivowel  is  a  consonant  which  can  be  imperfectly  sound- 
ed without  a  vowel.  The  semivowels  are  /,  h,  j,  I,  m,  n,  r,  s,  vt 
x,  z,  and  c  and  g  soft. 

Four  of  the  semivowels,  I,  m,  n,  and  r,  are  termed  liquids,  on 
account  of  the  £  uency  of  their  sounds. 

FORMS    OF    THE    LETTERS. 

In  the  English  language,  the  Roman  characters  are  gen- 
erally employed  ;  sometimes,  the  Italic  ;  and  occasionally, 
the  ©Itr  (Knglisl). 

The  letters  have  severally  two  forms,  by  which  they  are 
distinguished  as  capitals  and  small  letters. 

Small  letters  constitute  the  body  of  every  work  ;  and 
capitals  are  used  for  the  sake  of  eminence  and  distinction. 

RULES  FOR  THE  USE  OF  CAPITALS. 
RULE    I. TITLES    OF    BOOKS. 

The  titles  of  books,  and  the  heads  of  their  principal  divisions, 
should  be  printed  in  capitals.  When  books  are  merely  men- 
tioned, the  chief  words  in  their  titles  begin  with  capitals,  and 
the  other  letters  are  small ;  as,  "  Pope's  Essay  on  Man  " 

RULE    II. FIRST    WORDS. 

The  first  word  of  every  distinct  sentence,  sbould  begin  with 
a  capital. 

RULE    III. NAMES    OF    DEITY. 

All  names  of  the  Deity  should  begin  with  capitals  ;  as,  God. 
Jehovoh*  the  Almighty,  the.  Supreme  Being. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. CAPITALS.  17 

RULE    IV. PROPER    NAMES. 

Titles  of  office  or  honour,  and  proper  names  oi  every  de- 
scription, should  begin  with  capitals  ;  as,  Chisf  Justice.  Halet 
William,  London,  the  Park,  the  Albion,  the  Spectator,  the  Thames. 

RULE    V. OBJECTS    PERSONIFIED. 

The  name  of  an  object  personified,  when  it  conveys  an  idea 
strictly  individual,  should  begin  with  a  capital ;  as, 

1 "  Come,  gentle  Spring,  ethereal  mildness,  come." 

RULE    VI. WORDS    DERIVED. 

Words  derived  from  proper  names  of  persons  or  places, 
should  begin  with  capitals  ;  as,  Newtonian,  Grecian,  Roman. 

RULE    VII. 1    AND    O. 

The  words  /  and  O,  should  always  be  capitals. 

RULE    VIII. IN    POETRY. 

Every  line  in  poetry  should  begin  with  a  capital. 

RULE    IX. EXAMPLES. 

The  first  word  of  a  full  example,  of  a  distinct  speech,  or  of 
a  direct  quotation,  should  begin  with  a  capital ;  as,  "  Remem 
ber  this  maxim  :  c  Know  thyself  " — "  Virgil  says,  c  Labour 
conquers  all  things.'  " 

RULE    X. CHIEF    WORDS. 

Other  words  of  particular  importance,  and  such  as  denote  the 
principal  subjects  of  discourse,  may  be  distinguished  by  capitals. 
Proper  names  frequently  have  capitals  throughout. 

OF  SYLLABLES  AND  WORDS. 

A  Syllable  is  one  or  more  letters  pronounced  in  one  sound, 
and  is  either  a  word  or  a  part  of  a  word  ;  as,  a,  an,  ant. 

A  Word  is  one  or  more  syllables  spoken  or  written  as 
the  sign  of  some  idea. 

In  every  word  there  are  as  many  syllables  as  there  are 
distinct  sounds  ;  as,  gram-ma-ri-an. 

A  word  of  one  syllable  is  called  a  monosyllable  ;  a  word 
of  two  syllables,  a  dissyllable  ;  a  word  of  three  syllables,  a 
trisyllable  ;  and  a  word  of  four  or  more  syllables,  a  poly 
syllable. 

'  DIPHTHONGS    AND    TRIPHTHONGS. 

A  diphthong  is  two  vowels  joined  in  one  syllable ;  as, 
ea  in  beat,  on  in  sound. 


18  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

A  proper  diphthong,  is  a  diphthong  in  which  both  the 
vowels  are  sounded  ;  as,  oi  in  voice. 

An  improper  diphthong,  is  a  diphthong  in  which  only 
one  of  the  vowels  is  sounded  ;  as,  oa  in  loaf. 

A  triphthong  is  three  vowels  joined  in  one  syllable ;  as 
eau  in  beau,  lew  in  view. 

A  proper  triphthong,  is  a  triphthong  in  which  all  the 
vowels  are  sounded  ;  as,  uoy  in  buoy. 

An  i?nproper  triphthong,  is  a  triphthong  in  which  only 
one  or  two  of  the  vowels  are  sounded  ;  as,  eau  in  beauty, 
iou  in  anxious. 

SPECIES    AND    FIGURE    OP    WORDS. 

Words  are  distinguished  as  primitive  or  derivative,  and 
as  simple  or  compound.  The  former  division  is  called 
their  species  ;  the  latter,  their  Jigure. 

A  primitive  word  is  one  that  is  not  formed  from  any  sim- 
plex word  in  the  language  ;  as,  harm,  great,  connect. 

A  derivative  word  is  one  that  is  formed  from  some  sim- 
pler word  in  the  language ;  as,  harmless,  greatly,  con- 
nected. 

A  simple  word  is  one  that  is  not  compounded ;  as,  ivatch, 
man. 

A  compound  word  is  one  that  is  composed  of  two  or 
more  simple  words  ;  as,  watchman,  nevertheless. 

Permanent  compounds  are  consolidated  ;  as,  bookseller, 
schoolmaster :  others  are  formed  by  the  hyphen  ;  as,  glass- 
house, negro-merchant. 

SYLLABICATION. 

In  dividing  words  into  syllables,  we  are  chiefly  to  be  directed  by 
the  ear ;  it  may  however  be  proper  to  observe  the  following  rules. 

I.  The  consonants  should  generally  be  joined  to  the  vowels 
or  diphthongs  which  they  modify  ;  as,  ap-os-tol-i-cal. 

II.  Derivative  and  grammatical  terminations  should  gener- 
ally be  separated  from  the  radical  word ;  as,  harm-less,  grcat-ly, 
wtinect-cd. 

III.  Compounds   should   be  divided  into  the  simple  words 
which  compose  them  ;  as,  watch-man,  never-the-less. 

IV.  At  the  end  of  a  line,  a  word  may  be  divided,  if  necessa- 
ry ;  but  a  syllable  must  never  be  broken. 

OF  SPELLING. 

Spelling  is  the  art  of  expressing  words  by  their  proper 
letters. 


ORTHOGRAPHY.- — SPELLING.  19 

One — This  important  art  is  to  be  acquired  rather  by  means  of  the  spell- 
ing-book or  dictionary,  and  by  observation  in  reading,  than  by  the  study  of 
written  rules.  The  orthography  of  our  language  is  attended  with  much  un- 
certainty and  perplexity :  many  words  are  variously  spelled  by  the  best 
scholars,  and  many  others  are  not  usually  written  according  to  trie  analogy 
of  similar  words.  But  to  be  ignorant  of  the  orthography  of  such  words  as 
are  uniformly  spelled  and  frequently  used,  is  justly  considered  disgraceful. 
The  following  rules  may  prevent  some  embarrassment,  and  thus  be  of  ser- 
vice to  the  learner. 

RULES  FOR  SPELLING. 
RULE    I. — FINAL    F,    L,    OR    S. 

Monosyllables  ending  inf,  I,  or  s,  preceded  by  a  single  vowel, 
double  the  final  consonant ;   as,  staff,  mill,  pass :   except  if,  of,      \ 
as,  gas,  lias,  was,  yes,  is,  his,  this,  us,  thus. 

RULE    II. OTHER    FINALS. 

Words  ending  in  any  other  consonant  than/,  I,  or  s,  do  not 
double  the  final  letter  :  except  add,  odd,  ebb,  egg,  i?in,  err,  burr       f 
purr,  butt,  buzz,  fuzz,  and  some  proper  names. 

RULE    III. DOUBLING. 

Monosyllables,  and  words  accented  on  the  last  syllable,  when 
they  end  with  a  single  consonant  preceded  by  a  single  vowel, 
double  their  final  consonant  before  an  additional  syllable  that 
begins  with  a  vowel :  as,  rob,  robber ;  permit,  permitting. 

Exc. — X  final,  being  equivalent  to  ks,  is  never  doubled. 

RULE    IV. NO    DOUBLING. 

A  final  consonant,  when  it  is  not  preceded  by  a  single  vow- 
el, or  when  the  accent  is  not  on  the  last  syllable,  should  remain 
single  before  an  additional  syllable  :  as,  toil,  tolling  ;  visit,  vis- 
ited ;  general,  generalize. 

Exc. — But  I  and  s  final  are  usually  ioubled,  (though  per- 
haps improperly,)  when  the  last  syllable  is  not  accented :  as, 
travel,  traveller ;  bias,  biassed. 

RULE    V. FINAL    LL. 

Primitive  words  ending  in  II,  generally  reject  one  I,  before      S 
fid,  less,  ly,  and  ?iess  :  as,  skill,  skilful,  skilless  ;  full,  fully,  fulness. 

OBS. —  Words  ending  in  any  other  double  letter  preserve  it  double  before 
these  terminations ;  as,  blissful,  oddly,  stiffness,  carelessness. 

RULE    VI. FINAL    E. 

The  final  e  of  a  primitive  word,  is  generally  omitted  before 
an  additional  termination  beginning  with  a  vowel :  as,  rate, 
ratable  ;  force,  forcible  ;  rave,  raving. 

Exc. — Words  ending  in  ce  or  ge,  retain  the  e  before  able  01 
ous,  to  preserve  the  sott  sound  of  c  and  g :  as,  peace,  peaceable ; 
change,  changeable ;  outrage,  outrageous. 


20  ENGLISH   GRAMMAIL 

RULE    VII — FINAL    E. 

The  final  e  of  a  primitive  word,  is  generally  retained  before 
•     an  additional  termination  beginning  with  a  consonant :  as,  pale, 
1        paleness  ;   lodge,  lodggpient. 

Exc. — When  the  e  is  preceded  by  a  vowel,  it  is  sometimes 
omitted;  as,  true,  truly;  awe,  awful:  and  sometimes  retained; 
as,  rue,  rueful ;  shoe,  shoeless. 

RULE    VIII. FINAL    Y. 

The  final  y  of  a  primitive  word,  when  preceded  by  a  conso- 
nant, is  changed  into  i  before  an  additional  termination  :  as, 
merry,  merrier,  merriest,  merrily,  merriment ;  pity,  pitied,  pities, 
pitiest,  pitiless,  pitiful,  pitiable. 

Exc. — Before  ing,  y  is  retained  to  prevent  the  doubling  of 
i ;  as,  pity,  pitying.  Words  ending  in  ie,  dropping  the  e  by 
llule  6th,  change  i  into  y,  for  the  same  reason  ;  as,  die,  dying. 

OBS. — When  a  vowel  precedes,  y  should  not  be  changed :  as,  day,  days; 
valley,  valleys;  money,  moneys;  monkey,  monkeys. 

RULE    IX. COMPOUNDS. 

Compounds  generally  retain  the  orthography  of  the  simple 
words  which  compose  them  ;  as,  hereof,  wherein,  horseman,  re- 
call, uphill,  shellfish. 

-»f  Exc. — In  permanent  compounds,  the  words  full  and  all  drop 

one  I ;  as,  handful,  careful,  always,  withal :  in  others,  they  re- 
tain both  ;  as,  full-eyed,  all-wise,  save-all. 

OBS. — Other  words  ending  in  II,  sometimes  improperly  drop  one  I,  when 
taken  into  composition ;  as,  miscal,  downtiU.  This  excision  is  reprehensi- 
ble, because  it  is  contrary  to  general  analogy,  and  because  both  letters  are 
necessary  to  preserve  the  sound,  and  show  the  derivation  of  the  compound. 
Where  is  the  consistency  of  writing,  recall,  miscal — intkrall,  bethral — wind- 
fall, downfal — laystall,  thumbstal — waterfall,  overfal — molehill,  dunghU — 
windmill,  twibil — clodpoll,  enrol?  [See  Johnson's  Dictionary,  first  Amer- 


QUESTIONS  FOR  EXAMINATION. 

LESSON   I. — GENERAL   DIVISION. 

What  is  English  Grammar  1 
How  is  it  divided  1 
Of  what  does  Orthography  treat  1 
Of  what  does  Etymology  treat  1 
Of  what  does  Syntax  treat  1 
Of  what  does  Prosody  treat  7 

QUESTIONS  ON  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

LESSON   II. — LETTERS. 

Of  what  does  Orthography  treat  1 


ORTHOGRAPHY. QUESTIONS.  21 

What  is  a  Letter? 

What  is  an  articulate  sound  1 

How  many  letters  are  there  in  English'?     Repeat  them. 

How  are  the  letters  divided  1 

What  is  a  vowel  1 

What  is  a  consonant  1 

What  letters  are  vowels'?  and  what,  consonants 7 

When  are  w  and  y  consonants  7  and  when,  vowels  7 

How  arc  the  consonants  divided  1 

Wrhat  is  a  mute  1  what  consonants  are  mutes  7 

What  is  a  semivowel!  what  consonants  are  semivowels  1 

What  letters  are  called  liquids  7  and  why  7 

LESSON    III. — CAPITALS. 

What  characters  are  employed  in  English  7 
What  distinction  of  form  do  we  make  in  each  of  the  letters! 
What  is  said  o.  omall  letters  7  and  why  are  capitals  used  7 
How  many  rules  for  capitals  are  there  7  and  what  are  their  heads  7 
What  says  Rule  1st  of  titles  of  books? — Rule  2d  of  first  words? — Rule  3d  of 
names  of  Deity? — Rule  4th  of  proper  names? — Rule  5th  of  objects  person- 
ified?—Ru\c  6th  of  words  derived? — Rule  7th  of  I  and  O? — Rub  8th  of 
poetry? — Rule  9th  of  examples? — Rule  10th  of  chief  icords? 

LESSON    IV. — SYLLABLES   AND   WORDS. 

What  is  a  Syllable  ?     What  is  a  Word  ? 

Can  the  syllables  of  a  word  he  perceived  hy  the  ear  7 

What  4s  a  word  of  one  syllable  called  7 

What  is  a  word  of  two  syllables  called  7 

What  is  a  word  of  three  syllables  called  7 

What  is  a  word  of  four  or  more  syllables  called  7 

What  is  a  diphthong? 

What  is  a  proper  diphthong  7 — an  improper  diphthong  t 

What  is  a  tripJithong  ? 

WThat  is  a  proper  triphthong 7 — an  improper  triphthong! 

How  are  words  distinguished  in  regard  to  species  and  figure? 

What  is  a  primitive  word  7 

What  is  a  derivative  word  7 

What  is  a  simple  word  7 

What  is  a  compound  word  7 

How  do  permanent  compounds  differ  from  others! 

What  guide  have  we  for  dividing  words  into  syllables! 

What  are  the  special  rules  of  syllabication  7 

LESSON   V. — SPELLING.         ~ 

What  is  Spelling? 

How  is  this  art  to  be  acquired  7 

How  many  rules  for  spelling  are  there 7  and  what  are  their  heads! 

What  «*ays  Rule  1st  of  final  /,  I,  or  s?— Rule  2d  of  other  finals  ?—  Rule  3d 
of  the  doubling  of  consonants  7 — Rule  4th  against  the  doubling  cf  conso- 
nants?—Rule  5th  of  final  U?— Rule  Gth  of  final  tl— Rule  "7th  offina* 
e? — Rule  8th  of  final  y? — Rule  9th  of  compounds? 


EXERCISES  Iflf  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Jtjr  [Spelling  is  to  be  taught  by  example,  rather  than  by  rule.     For  oral 
exercises  in  this  branch  of  learning,  a  spelling-book  or  vocabulary  should 


22  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

be  employed.  The  following  examples  of  false  orthography  are  inserted, 
that  they  may  be  corrected  by  the  pupil  in  writing.  They  are  selected  with 
direct  reference  to  the  rules ;  which  are  at  first  indicated  by  figures.  For 
it  is  evident,  that  exercises  of  this  kind,  without  express  rules  for  their  cor- 
rection, would  rather  perplex  than  instruct  the  learner ;  and  that  his  ability 
to  correct  them  without  reference  to  the  rules,  must  presuppose  such  know- 
ledge as  would  render  them  useless.] 

EXERCISE  I— CAPITALS. 

1.  The  pedant  quoted  Johnson's  dictionary  of  the  english 
language,  Gregory's  dictionary  of  arts  and  sciences,  Crabb's 
english  synonymes,  Walker's  key  to  the  pronunciation  of  pro- 
per names,  Sheridan's  rhetorical  grammar,  and  the  diversions 
of  purley. 

2.  gratitude  is  a  delightful  emotion,     the  grateful  heart  at 
once  performs  its  duty  and  endears  itself  to  others. 

3.  What  madness  and  folly,  to  deny  the  great  first  cause ! 
Shall  mortal  man  presume  against  his  maker  ?  shall  he  not 
fear  the  omnipotent?   shall  he  not  reverence  the  everlasting 
one  ? — i  The  fear  of  the  lord  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom.' 

4.  xerxes  the  great,  emperor  of  persia,  united  the  medes, 
persians,  bactrians,  lydians,  assyrians,  hyrcamans,  and  many 
other  nations,  in  an  expedition  against  greece. 

5.  I  observed  that,  when  the  votaries  of  religion  were  led 
aside,  she  commonly  recalled  them  by  her  emissary  conscience, 
before  habit  had  time  to  enchain  them. 

6.  Hercules  is  said  to  have  killed  the  nemean  lion,  the  ery- 
manthian  boar,  the  lernean  serpent,  and  the  stymphalian  birds. 
The  Christian  religion  has  brought  all  mythologic  stories  and 
milesian  fables  into  disrepute. 

7.  i  live  as  i  did,  i  think  as  i  did,  i  love  you  as  i  did ;  but  all 
these  are  to  no  purpose  ;  the  world  will  not  live,  think,  or  love 
as  i  do. — o  wretched  prince !  o  cruel  reverse  of  fortune  !  o  father 
Micipsa ! 

8.  are  these  thy  views  ?  proceed,  illustrious  youth, 
and  virtue  guard  thee  to  the  throne  of  truth ! 

9.  Those  who  pretend  to  love  peace,  should  remember  this 
maxim :  "  it  is  the  second  blow  that  makes  the  battle." 

EXERCISE  II.— CAPITALS. 

'time  and  i  will  challenge  any  other  two,'  said  philip. — 'thus, 
said  diogenes,  i  do  i  trample  on  the  pride  of  plato.' — i  true,'  re- 
plied plato  ;  <  but  is  it  not  with  the  greater  pride  of  diogenes  ?' 

the  father  in  a  transport  of  joy,  burst  into  the  following  words: 
c  o  excellent  scipio  !  heaven  has  given  thee  more  than  human 
virtue  !  o  glorious  leader  !  o  wondrous  youth  !' 


ORTHOGHAPHY. EXEHOISE3.  23 

epammondas,  the  theban  general,  was  remarkable  for  his  love 
of  truth,  he  never  told  a  lie,  even  in  jest. 

and  pharaoh  said  to  Joseph,  "  say  to  thy  brethren,  '  do  this — 
lade  your  beasts,  and  go  to  the  land  of  canaan.'  " 

who  is  she  that,  with  graceful  steps  and  a  lively  air,  trips 
over  yonder  plain  ?  her  name  is  health  ;  she  is  the  daughter  of 
exercise  and  temperance. 

to  the  penitent  sinner,  a  mediator  and  intercessor  with  the 
sovereign  of  the  universe,  appear  comfortable  names. 

the  murder  of  abel,  the  curse  and  rejection  of  cain,  and  the 
birth  and  adoption  of  seth,  are  almost  the  only  events  related  of 
the  immediate  family  of  adam,  after  his  fall. 

on  what  foundation  stands  the  warrior's  pride, 
how  just  his  hopes,  let  sweedish  charles  decide. 

in  every  leaf  that  trembles  to  the  breeze, 
i  hear  the  voice  of  god  among  the  trees. 

EXERCISE  III.— SPELLING. 

1.  Few  know  the  value  of  a  friend,  til  they  lose  him. 
Good  men  pas  by  offences,  and  take  no  revenge. 
Hear  patiently,  iff  thou  wouldst  speak  wel. 

2.  The  business  of  warr  is  devastation  and  destruction. 
To  er  is  human  ;  to  forgive,  divine. 

A  bad  speller  should  not  pretend  to  scholarshipp. 

3.  It  often  requires  deep  diging,  to  obtain  pure  water. 
Praise  is  most  shuned  by  the  praiseworthy. 

He  that  hoists  too  much  sail,  runs  a  risk  of  overseting. 

4.  duarrels  are  more  easily  begun  than  endded. 
Contempt  leaves  a  deepper  scar  than  anger. 

Of  all  tame  animals  the  flatterrer  is  the  most  mischievous. 

5.  Q,uacks  are  generally  more  venturesome  than  skillful. 
He  that  willfully  injures  others,  is  a  bad  citizen. 

Odity  may  excite  attention,  but  it  cannot  gain  esteem. 

6.  Good  examples  are  very  convinceing  teachers. 
Doubts  should  not  excite  contention,  but  inquirey. 
Obligeing  conduct  procures  deserved  esteem. 

7.  Wise  men  measure  time  by  their  improvment  of  it. 
Learn  to  estimate  all  things  by  their  real  usfulness. 
Encouragment  increases  with  success. 

8.  Nothing  essential  to  happyness  is  unattainable. 
Vices,  though  near  relations,  are  all  at  varyance. 
Before  thou  denyest  a  favour,  consider  the  request 

9.  Good-wil  is  a  more  powerful  motive  than  constraint 
A  wel-spent  day  prepares  us  for  sweet  repose. 

The  path  of  fame  is  altogether  an  uphil  road. 


24  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR, 

EXERCISE  IV.^SPELLINO, 

1.  He  is  tal  enough  who  walks  uprightly. 
Repetition  makes  smal  transgressions  great. 
Religion  regulates  the  wil  and  affections. 

2.  To  carry  a  ful  cupp  even,  requires  a  steady  hand 
Idleness  is  the  nest  in  which  mischief  lays  its  egs. 
The  whole  journey  of  life  is  besett  with  foes. 

3.  Peace  of  mind  should  be  prefered  to  bodily  safety. 
A  bad  begining  is  unfavourable  to  success. 

Very  fruitful  trees  often  need  to  be  proped. 

4.  None  ever  gained  esteem  by  tattling  and  gossippmg. 
Religion  purifies,  fortifies,  and  tranquillizes  the  mind. 
They  had  all  been  closetted  together  a  long  time. 

5.  Let  every  one  be  fullly  persuaded  in  his  own  mind. 
Indolence  and  listlesness  are  foes  to  happiness. 
Carelesness  has  occasioned  many  a  wearisome  step. 

6.  In  all  thy  undertakeings,  ponder  the  motive  and  the  end 
We  cannot  wrong  others  without  injureing  ourselves. 

A  dureable  good  cannot  spring  from  an  external  cause. 

7.  Duely  appreciate  and  improve  your  privileges. 
To  borrow  of  future  time,  is  thriftless  managment. 

He  who  is  truely  a  fireman  is  above  mean  compliances. 

8.  Pitiing  friends  cannot  save  us  in  a  diing  hour. 
Wisdom  rescues  the  decaies  of  age  from  aversion. 
Vallies  are  generally  more  fertile  than  hills. 

9.  Cold  numness  had  quite  bereft  her  of  sense. 

A  cascade,  or  waterfal,  is  a  charming  object  in  scenery. 
Nettles  grow  in  the  vinyard  of  the  slothfull. 
Tuition  is  lost  on  idlers  and  numbsculs. 

EXERCISE  V.— SPELLING. 

1.  He  that  scjfs  at  the  crooked,  should  beware  of  stooping. 
Pictures  that  resemble  flowers,  smel  only  of  paint. 
Misdemeanours  are  the  pioneers  of  gros  vices. 

2.  To  remitt  a  wrong,  leaves  the  offender  in  debt.  ^ 
Superlative  commendation  is  near  akinn  to  detraction. 
Piety  admitts  not  of  excessive  sorrow. 

3.  You  are  safe  in  forgeting  benefits  you  have  confered. 
He  has  run  well  who  has  outstriped  his  own  errors. 
See  that  you  have  ballast  proportionate  to  your  riging. 

4.  The  biasses  of  prejudice  often  preclude  convincement 
Rather  follow  the  wise  than  lead  the  foollish. 

To  reason  with  the  angry,  is  like  whisperring  to  the  deaf 
A  bigotted  judge  needs  no  time  for  deliberation. 
The  gods  of  this  world  have  many  worshippers. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. EXERCISES.  25 

5.  Crosness  has  more  subjects  than  admirers. 
Fearlesness  conquers  where  Blamelesness  is  armour-bearer, 

6.  Many  things  are  chiefly  valued  for  their  rareity. 
Vicious  old  age  is  hopeless  and  deploreable. 
Irreconcileable  animosity  is  always  blameable. 

7.  Treachery  lurks  beneath  a  guilful  tongue. 
Disobedience  and  mischief  deserve  chastisment. 

By  self-examination,  we  discover  the  lodgments  of  sin;Q%  LI 
Tho  passions  often  mislead  the  judgment. 

8.  To  be  happy  without  holyness  is  impossible. 
And,  all  within,  were  walks  and  allies  wide. 
Call  imperfection  what  thou  fancy'st  such. 
Without  fire  chimnies  are  useless. 

9.  The  true  philanthropist  deserves  a  universal  pasport 
Ridicule  is  generally  but  the  froth  of  il-nature. 

All  mispent  time  will  one  day  be  regretted. 

EXERCISE  VI— SPELLING. 

Fiction  may  soften,  without  improveing  the  heart. 
Affectation  is  a  sprout  that  should  be  niped  in  the  bud. 
A  covettous  person  is  always  in  want. 
Fashion  is  compareable  to  an  igni°-fatuus. 
Fair  appearances  somtimes  cover  foul  purposes. 
Garnish  not  your  commendations  with  flatterry. 
Never  utter  a  falshood  even  for  truth's  sake. 
Medicines  should  be  administerred  with  caution. 
We  have  here  no  continueing  city,  no  abideing  rest. 
Many  a  trapp  is  laid  to  ensnare  the  feet  of  youth. 
We  are  caught  as  silyly  as  the  bird  in  the  net. 
By  defering  repentance,  we  accumulate  sorrows. 
To  preach  to  the  droneish,  is  to  waste  your  words. 
We  are  often  benefitted  by  what  we  have  dreaded. 
We  may  be  succesful,  and  yet  disappointed. 
In  rebusses,  pictures  are  used  to  represent  words. 
He  is  in  great  danger  who  parlies  with  conscience. 
Your  men  of  forhead  are  magnificent  in  promises. 
A  true  friend  is  a  most  valueable  acquisition 
It  is  not  a  bad  memory  that  forgets  injury es. 
Weigh  your  subject  wel,  before  you  speak  positivly. 
Difficulties  are  often  increased  by  mismanagment. 
Diseases  are  more  easyly  prevented  than  cured. 
Contrivers  of  mischief  often  entrapp  themselves. 
Corrupt  speech  indicates  a  distemperred  mind. 
Asseveration  does  not  allways  remove  doubt. 
Hypocrites  are  like  wolves  in  sheeps'  clotheing. 
Ostentatious  liberallity  is  its  own  paymaster. 

3 


26  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE  VII— SPELLING. 

A  downhil  road  may  be  travelled  with  ease. 
Distempered  fancy  can  swel  a  molehil  to  a  mountain. 
Let  your  own  unbiassed  judgment  determine. 
A  knave  can  often  undersel  his  honest  neighbours. 
Xenophanes  prefered  reputation  to  wealth. 
True  politeness  is  the  ofspring  of  benevolence. 
Levellers  are  generally  the  dupes  of  designning  men, 
Rewards  are  for  those  who  have  fullfiled  their  duty. 
Who  trusts  a  hungry  boy  in  a  cubburd  of  dainties  ? 
Misery  acquaints  a  man  with  strange  bedfellers. 
The  liberal  man  ties  his  purse  with  a  beau-not. 
Double-deelers  are  seldom  long  in  favour. 
The  characters  of  the  crosrow  have  wrought  wonders. 
The  plagiary  is  a  jacdaw  decked  with  stolen  plumes. 
All  virtues  are  in  agrement ;  all  vices  at  varyance. 
Personnal  liberty  is  every  man's  natural  birthrite. 
There,  wrapt  in  clouds,  the  blueish  hills  ascend. 
The  birds  frame  to  thy  song,  their  chearfull  cherupping. 
There  figgs,  skydyed,  a  purple  hue  disclose. 
Lysander  goes  twice  a  day  to  the  choccolat-house. 
Years  following  years,  steal  sumthing  every  day. 
The  soul  of  the  slothfull,  does  but  drowse  in  his  body. 
What  think  you  of  a  clergiman  in  a  soldier's  dres  1 
Justice  is  here  holding  the  stilliards  for  a  balance. 
The  huming-burd  is  somtimes  no  biger  than  a  bumble-be 
The  muskittoes  will  make  you  as  spoted  as  samon-trout. 
Cruelty  to  animals  is  a  malicious  and  lo-lived  vice. 
Absolute  Necessity  must  sign  their  deth-warrant. 
Be  who  catches  flies,  emulates  the  nat-snaper. 
The  froggs  had  long  lived  unmolested  in  a  horspond. 
These  are  villanous  creatures,'  says  a  blokheded  boy. 

The  robbin-read-breast  til  of  late  had  rest ; 

And  children  sacred  held  a  martin's  nest 


ETYMOLOGY. PARTS    OP   SPEECH.  27 

• 

PART   II. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology  treats  of  the  different  parts  of  speech,  and 
their  classes  and  modifications. 

THE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 

The  Parts  of  Speech,  or  sorts  of  words,  in  English,  are 
ten  ;  namely,  the  Article,  the  Noun,  the  Adjective,  the  Pro- 
noun, the  Verb,  the  Participle,  the  Adverb,  the  Conjunction, 
the  Preposition,  and  the  Interjection. 

1.    THE    ARTICLE. 

An  Article  is  a  word  placed  before  nouns,  to  limit  their 
signification  :  the  articles  are  the,  and  an  or  a. 

2.  THE  NOUN. 

A  Noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  or  thing,  that 
can  be  known  or  mentioned:  as,  George,  York,  man^ 
apple,  truth. 

3.    THE    ADJECTIVE. 

An  Adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  noun  or  pronoun, 
and  generally  expresses  quality  :  as,  A  wise  man  ;  a  new 
book.  You  two  are  diligent. 

4.    THE    PRONOUN. 

A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  in  stead  of  a  noun :  as,  The 
boy  loves  his  book ;  he  has  long  lessons,  and  he  learns  them 
well. 

5.    THE    VERB. 

A  Verb  is  a  word  that  signifies  to  be,  to  act,  or  to  be 
acted  upon  :  as,  I  am,  I  rule,  I  am  ruled  ;  I  love,  thou 
lovest,  he  loves. 

6.    THE    PARTICIPLE. 

A  Participle  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb,  participating 
the  properties  of  a  verb  and  an  adjective  ;  and  is  generally 
formed  by  adding  ing,  d,  or  ed,  to  the  verb  :  thus,  from  the 
verb  rule,  are  formed  three  participles,  two  simple  and  one 
compound ;  as,  1.  ruling,  2.  ruled,  3.  having  ruled. 

7.    THE    ADVERB. 

An  Adverb  is  a  word  added  to  a  verb,  a  participle,  an 


28  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

adjective,  or  an  other  adverb ;  and  generally  expresses 
time,  place,  degree,  or  manner :  as,  They  are  now  here, 
studying  very  diligently. 

8.  THE    CONJUNCTION. 

A  Conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  words  or  sen- 
tences in  construction,  and  to  show  the  dependence  of  the 
terms  so  connected :  as,  Thou  and  he  are  happy,  because 
you  are  good. 

9.  THE    PREPOSITION. 

A  Preposition  is  a  word  used  to  express  some  relation 
of  different  things  or  thoughts  to  each  other,  and  is  gener- 
ally placed  before  a  noun  or  a  pronoun :  as,  The  paper  lies 
before  me  on  the  desk. 

10.    THE    INTERJECTION. 

An  Interjection  is  a  word  that  is  uttered  merely  to  indi- 
cate some  strong  or  sudden  emotion  of  the  mind :  as,  Oh  ! 
alas  ! 


PARSING. 

Parsing  is  the  resolving  or  explaining  of  a  sentence  ac- 
cording to  the  definitions  and  rules  of  grammar. 

A  perfect  definition  of  any  thing  or  class  of  things  is  such 
a  description  of  it,  as  distinguishes  that  entire  thing  or  class 
from  every  thing  else  in  nature. 

A  ride  of  grammar  is  some  law,  more  or  less  general,  by 
which  custom  regulates  and  prescribes  the  right  use  of  Ian 
guage. 

EXAMPLES  FOR  PARSING. 

CHAPTER  I.— ETYMOLOGICAL. 

In  the  First  Chapter,  it  is  required  of  the  pupil — merely  to  distin 
guish  arid  define  the  different  parts  of  speech. 

The  definitions  to  be  given  in  the  First  Chapter,  are  one,  and  only 
one,  for  each  word,  or  part  of  speech.     Thus : 

EXAMPLE  PARSED. 

"  The  patient  ox  submits  to  the  yoke,  and  meekly  performs 
the  labour  required  of  him." 

T7u  ......     is  an  article.    An  article  is  a  word  placed  before 

nouns,  to  limit  their  signification. 


ETYMOLOGY, PARSING. 


29 


Patient    . 
Ox 


\9  an  adjective. 


is  a  noun. 


Submits 
To    . 


.     is  a  verb, 
is  a  preposition. 


The  . 
Yoke 

And 


is  an  article. 
.     is  a  noun. 


is  a  conjunction. 


Meekly is  an  adverb. 


Performs 
The  .  . 
Labour 

Required 


.  is  a  verb, 
is  an  article. 
.  is  a  noun. 


.     is  a  participle. 


ia  a  preposition. 


fltm is  a  pronoun. 


An  adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a 
noun  or  prcnoun,  and  generally 
expresses  quality. 

A  noun  is  the  name  of  any  person, 
place,  or  thing,  that  can  be  known 
or  mentioned. 

A  verb  is  a  word  that  signifies  to  be} 
to  act,  or  to  be  acted  upon. 

A  preposition  is  a  word  used  to  ex- 
press some  relation  of  different 
things  or  thoughts  to  each  other, 
and  is  generally  placed  before  a 
noun  or  a  pronoun. 

An  article  is  a  word  placed  before 
nouns,  to  limit  their  signification. 

A  noun  is  the  name  of  any  person, 
place,  or  thing,  that  can  be  known 
or  mentioned. 

A  conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  con- 
nect words  or  sentences  in  con- 
struction, and  to  show  the  depend- 
ence of  the  terms  so  connected. 

An  adverb  is  a  word  added  to  a  verb, 
a  participle,  an  adjective,  or  an 
other  adverb;  and  generally  ex- 
presses time,  place,  degree,  or  man- 
ner. 

A  verb  is  a  word  that  signifies  to  bet 
to  act,  or  to  be  acted  upon. 

An  article  is  a  word  placed  before 
nouns,  to  limit  their  signification. 

A  noun  is  the  name  of  any  p^mon, 
place,  or  thing,  that  can  be  known 
or  mentioned. 

A  participle  is  a  word  derived  from 
a  verb,  participating  the  properties 
of  a  verb  and  an  adjective;  and  is 
generally  formed  by  adding  ing,  d} 
or  ed  to  the  verb. 

A  preposition  is  a  word  used  to  ex- 
press some  relation  of  different 
things  or  thoughts  to  each  other, 
and  is  generally  placed  before  a 
noun  or  a  pronoun. 

A  pronoun  is  a  word  used  in  stead 
of  a  noun. 


LESSON  I. 

The  rose,  the  lily,  and  the  pink,  are  fragrant  flowers. 
A  peach,  an  apple,  a  pear,  or  an  orange,  is  delicious. 
A  landscape  presents  a  pleasing  variety  of  objects. 
Man  is  the  noblest  work  of  creation. 
The  eagle  has  a  strong  and  piercing  eye. 
The  swallow  builds  her  nest  of  mud,  and  lines  it  with  soft 
feathers. 


30  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

The  setting  sun  gives  a  beautiful  brilliancy  to  the  western 
sky. 

LESSON  II. 

Candour,  sincerity,  and  truth,  are  amiable  qualities. 

Virtuous  youth  gradually  brings  forward  accomplished  and 
flourishing  manhood. — Blair. 

Injuries  retaliated  in  anger,  excite  resentment  in  return. 

All  that  is  great  and  good  in  the  universe,  is  on  the  side  of 
clemency  and  mercy. — Blair. 

Industry  is  needful  in  every  condition  of  life :  the  price  of 
all  improvement  is  labour. 

Sloth  enfeebles  equally  the  bodily  and  the  mental  powers, 
It  saps  the  foundation  of  every  virtue,  and  pours  upon  us  a  del- 
uge of  crimes  and  evils. — Blair. 

LESSON  III. 

An  idle,  mischievous,  and  disobedient  pupil  disgraces  him- 
self, dishonours  his  parents,  and  displeases  his  teacher. 
Alas !  that  such  examples  are  sometimes  found ! 
O  Virtue !  how  miserable  are  they  who  forfeit  thy  rewards  I 

Pleasure's  call  attention  wins, 

Hear  it  often  as  we  may ; 
New  as  ever  seem  our  sins, 

Though  committed  every  day. 

O !  then,  ere  the  turf  or  tomb 

Cover  us  from  every  eye, 
Spirit  of  instruction  !  come, 

Make  us  learn  that  we  must  die. — Cowpcr 

OF  THE  ARTICLE. 

An  Article  is  a  word  placed  before  nouns,  to  limit  their 
jrignification  :  the  articles  are  the,  and  an  or  a. 

An  and  a  are  one  and  the  same  article.  An  is  used  when- 
ever  the  following  word  begins  with  a  vmvel  sound ;  as,  An  art, 
an  end,  an  heir,  an  inch,  an  ounce,  an  hour,  an  urn. — A  is 
used  whenever  the  following  word  begins  with  a  consonant 
sound ;  as,  A  man,  a  house,  a  wonder,  a  one,  a  yew,  a  use,  a 
ewer.  Thus  the  consonant  sounds  of  w  and  y,  even  when  ex- 
pressed by  other  letters,  require  a  and  not  an  before  them. 

CLASSES. 

The  articles  are  distinguished  as  the  definite  and  the 
indefinite*  ^ 


BTTYMOLOGY.    -NOUNS.  31 

I.  The  definite  article  is  the,  which  denotes  some  par- 
iular  thing  or  things ;  as,  The  boy,  the  oranges. 

II.  The  indefinite  article  is  an  or  a,  which  denotes  one 
thing  of  a  kind,  but  not  any  particular  one ;  as,  A  boy  an 
orange. 

OBS.  1. — The  English  articles  have  no  grammatical  modifications:  they 
are  not  varied  by  numbers,  genders,  and  cases,  as  are  those  of  some  other 
languages.  In  respect  to  class,  each  is  sui  generis. 

OB^.  2. — A  common  noun  without  an  article  or  other  word  to  limit  its 
signification,  is  generally  taken  in  its  widest  sense;  as,  Man  is  endowed 
with  reason. 


OF  THE  NOUN. 

A  Noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  or  thing,  that 
can  be  known  or  mentioned :  as,  George,  YorAr,  man, 
apple,  truth. 

OBS.  1. — All  words  and  signs  taken  technically,  (that  is,  independently  of 
their  meaning,  and  merely  as  things  spoken  of,)  are  nouns;  or,  rather,  are 
things  read  and  construed  as  nouns;  as,  "  Us  is  &  personal  pronoun." — Mur- 
ray. "  Th  has  two  sounds." — Id.  "  Control  is  probably  contracted  from 
counter-roll." — Crabb.  "  Without  one  if.  or  but." — Cowper.  "  A  is  some- 
times a  noun;  as,  a  great  A." — Todd's  Johnson.  "Formerly  sp  was  cast 
in  a  piece,  as  s?s  are  now." — Hist.  Printing,  1770. 

OBS.  2. — In  parsing,  the  learner  must  observe  the  sense  and  use  of  each 
word,  and  class  it  accordingly :  many  words  commonly  belonging  to  other 
parts  of  speech,  are  occasionally  used  as  nouns,  and  must  be  parsed  as  such; 
as,  1.  "The  Ancient  of  days." — Bible.  "Of  the  ancients." — Swift.  "For 
such  impertinents." — Steele.  "  He  is  an  ignorant  in  it." — Id.  "  To  the 
nines." — Burns.  2.  "  Or  any  he,  the  proudest  of  thy  sort." — Shak.  "I  am 
the  happiest  she  in  Kent." — Steele.  "  The  shea  of  Italy." — Shak.  "  The  hes 
in  bims." — Bacon.  3.  "  Avaunt  all  attitude,  and  stare,  and  start  theatric !" — 
Cowper.  "  A  may-be  of  mercy  is  insufficient.1' — Bridge.  4.  "  For  the  pro- 
ducing of  real  happiness." — Crabb.  "Reading,  writing,  and  ciphering,  are 
indispensable  to  civilized  man."  5.  "  An  hereafter ." — Addison.  "The  dread 
of  a  hereafter."— F idler.  "The  deep  amen"— Scott.  " The  while."— Mil- 
ton. 6.  "With  hark,  and  whoop,  and  wild  halloo." — Scott.  "  Will  cuts  him 
«hort  with  a  '  What  thcnT  "—Addison. 

CLASSES. 

Nouns  are  divided  into  two  general  classes  ;  proper  and 
common. 

I.  A  proper  noun  is  the  name  of  some  particular  individ- 
ual or  people ;  as,  Adam,  Boston,  the  Hudson,  the  Romans. 

II.  A  common  noun  is  the  name  of  a  sort,  kind,  or  class 
of  tilings  ;  as,  Beast,  bird,  fish,  instct. 

The  particular  classes,  collective,  abstract,  and  verbal,  are  usu- 
ally included  among-  common  nouns. 


32  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

A  collective  noun,  or  noun  of  multitude,  is  the  name  of  many 
individuals  together  ;  as,  Council,  meeting,  committee,  flock. 

An  abstract  noun  is  the  name  of  some  particular  quality  con- 
sidered apart  from  its  substance ;  as,  Goodness,  hardness,  pride, 
frailty. 

A  verbal  or  participial  noun  is  the  name  of  some  action  or 
state  of  being  ;  and  is  formed  from  a  verb,  like  a  participle,  but 
employed  as  a  noun :  as,  "  The  triumphing  of  the  wicked  is 
short." — Job,  xx.  5. 


tnat  is,  Vie  orator.  "Many  a  nery  Alp,  — that  is,  mountain:  except  when 
a  common  noun  is  understood;  as,  The  [river]  Hudson — The  [ship]  Amity 
— The  treacherous  [man]  Judas. 

OBS.  2. — A  common  noun  with  the  definite  article  prefixed  to  it,  some- 
times becomes  proper;  as,  The  Park — The  Strand. 

OSB.  3. — The  common  name  of  a  thing  or  quality  personified  often  be- 
comes proper;  as,  "'My  power/  said  Reason,  'is  to  advise,  not  to  com- 
pel.' " — Johnson. 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Nouns  have  modifications  of  four  kinds  ;  namely,  Per* 
sons,  Numbers,  Genders,  and  Cases. 

PERSONS. 

Persons,  in  grammar,  are  modifications  that  distinguish 
the  speaker,  the  hearer,  and  the  person  or  thing  merely 
spoken  of. 

OBS. — The  distinction  of  persons  is  founded  on  the  different  relations 
which  the  objects  mentioned  may  bear  to  the  discourse  itself.  It  belongs 
to  nouns,  pronouns,  and  finite  verbs;  and  to  these  it  is  always  applied, 
either  by  peculiarity  of  form  or  construction,  or  by  inference  from  the  prin- 
ciples of  concord.  Pronouns  are  like  their  antecedents,  and  verbs  are  like 
their  subjects,  in  person. 

There  are  three  persons ;  the  first,  the  second,  and  the 
third. 

The  first  person  is  that  which  denotes  the  speaker ; 
as,  "  /  Paid  have  written  it." 

The  second  person  is  that  which  denotes  the  hearer ; 
as,  "  Robert,  who  did  this?" 

The  third  person  is  that  which  denotes  the  person  or 
thing  merely  spoken  of ;  as,  "  James  loves  hi.9  book." 

OBS.  1. — In  'written  language,  the  first  person  denotes  the  writer  or  au- 
thor; and  the  second,  the  reader  or  person  addressed:  except  when  the 
writer  describes  not  himself,  but  some  one  else,  as  uttering  to  an  other  the 
words  which  he  records. 

OBS.  2. — The  speaker  seldom  refers  to  himself  byname,  as  the  Bpeaker; 
consequently,  nouns  are  rarely  used  in  the  first  person;  and  when  they 


ETYMOLOGY. NOUNS.  33 

are,  a  pronoun  is  usually  prefixed  to  them.  Hence  some  grammarians  deny 
the  first  person  to  nouns  altogether ;  others  ascribe  it ;  and  many  are  silent 
on  the  subject.  Analogy  clearly  requires  it ;  as  may  be  seen  by  the  follow- 
ing examples:  "  Adsum  Troius  ^Eneas." — Virg.  "  Callopius  recensui" — 
Ter.  Com.  apudjinem.  "  Paul,  an  apostle,  &c.  unto  Timothy,  my  own  son 
in  the  faith." — 1  Tim.  i.  1. 

OBS.  3. — When  a  speaker  or  writer  does  not  choose  to  declare  himself  in 
thejlrst  person,  or  to  address  his  hearer  or  reader  in  the  second,  he  speaks 
of  both  or  either  in  the  third.  Thus  Moses  relates  what  Moses  diet,  and 
Caesar  records  the  achievements  of  Ccesar.  So  Judah  humbly  beseeches 
Joseph :  "  Let  thy  servant  abide  in  stead  of  the  lad  a  bondman  to  my  lord." 
— Gen.  xliv.  33.  And  Abraham  reverently  intercedes  with  God  :  "  Oh !  let 
not  the  Lord  be  angry,  and  I  will  speak." — Gen.  xviii.  30. 

OBS.  4. — When  inanimate  things  are  spoken  to,  they  are  personified;  and 
their  names  are  put  in  the  second  person,  because  by  the  figure  the  objects 
are  supposed  to  be  capable  of  hearing. 

NUMBERS. 

Numbers  are  modifications  that  distinguish  unity  and 
plurality. 

OBS. — The  distinction  of  numbers  serves  merely  to  show  whether  we 
speak  of  one  object,  or  of  more.  It  belongs  to  nouns,  pronouns,  and  finite 
verbs ;  and  to  these  it  is  always  applied,  either  by  peculiarity  of  form,  or  by 
inference  from  the  principles  of  concord.  Pronouns  are  like  their  antece- 
dents, and  verbs  are  like  their  subjects,  in  number. 

There  are  two  numbers  ;  the  singular  and  the  plural. 

The  singular  number  is  that  which  denotes  but  one  ; 
as,  The  boy  learns. 

The  plural  number  is  that  which  denotes  more  than 
one  ;  as,  The  boys  learn. 

The  plural  number  of  nouns  is  regularly  formed  by  add- 
ing 5  or  es  to  the  singular  :  as,  book,  books  ;  box,  boxes. 

RULE  I. — When  the  singular  ends  in  a  sound  which  will 
unite  with  that  of  s,  the  plural  is  generally  formed  by  adding  s 
only,  and  the  number  of  syllables  is  not  increased :  as,  pen, 
pens ;  grape,  grapes. 

RULE  II. — But  when  the  sound  of  s  cannot  be  united  with 
that  of  the  primitive  word,  the  plural  adds  s  to  final  e,  and  es  to 
other  terminations,  and  forms  a  separate  syllable :  as,  page, 
pages  ;  fox,  foxes. 

OBS.  1. — English  nouns  ending  in  o  preceded  by  a  consonant,  add  es,  but 
do  not  increase  their  syllables:  as,  wo,  woes;  hero,  heroes;  negro,  negroes; 
potato,  potatoes;  muskitto,  muskittoes;  octavo,  octavoes.  The  exceptions  to 
this  rule  appear  to  be  in  such  nouns  as  are  not  properly  and  fully  anglicised  • 
thus  many  write  cantos,  juntos,  solos,  &c.  Other  nouns  in  o  add  s  only ;  as, 
folio,  folios;  bamboo,  bamboos.  So  also,  two,  twos. 

OBS.  2. — Common  nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant,  change 
y  into  i,  and  add  es,  without  increase  of  syllables:  as,  jtfy,  fics;  duty,  duties. 
Other  nouns  in  y  add  5  only:  as,  day,  days;  valley,  valleys:  so  likewise 
proper  names ;  as,  Henry,  the  Henry*. 


34  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR, 

OBS.  3. — The  following  nouns  in  /,  change  /  into  v,  and  add  es,  for  the 
plural ;  sheaf,  leaf,  loaf,  beef,  thief,  calf  half,  elf,  shelf,  self,  wolf,  wharf:  as, 
sheaves,  leaves,  &c.  Life,  lives;  knife,  knives;  wife,  wives;  are  similar 
Staff'  makes  staves :  though  the  compounds  of  staff"  are  regular ;  as,  fagstaff^ 
flagstaffs.  The  greater  number  of  nouns  in  /and  fe,  are  regular ;  as,Jifes, 
strifes,  chiefs,  griefs,  gulfs,  &c. 

OBS.  4. — The  following  are  still  more  irregular:  man,  men;  woman,  wo- 
men; child,  children;  brother,  brethren  [or  brothers ;\  foot,  feet;  ox,  oxen; 
tooth,  teeth;  goose,  geese;  louse,  lice;  -mouse,  mice;  die,  dice;  penny,  pence. 
Dies,  stamps,  and  pennies,  coins,  ar$  regular. 

OBS.  5. — Many  foreign  nouns  retain  their  original  plural :  as,  arcanum, 
arcana;  datum,  data;  erratum,  errata;  effluvium,  effluvia;  medium,  me- 
dia [or  mediums;]  minutia,  minutice  ;  stratum,  strata;  stamen,  stamina; 
genus,  genera;  genius,  genii  [geniuses,  for  men  of  wit;]  magus,  magi; 
radius,  radii;  appendix,  appendices  [or  appendixes;]  calx,  calces;  index, 
indices  [or  indexes ;]  vortex,  vortices;  axis,  axes;  basis,  bases;  crisis, 
crises;  thesis,  theses;  antithesis,  antitheses;  diuresis,  diaereses;  ellipsis, 
ellipses;  emphasis,  emphases;  hypothesis,  hypotheses;  metamorphosis,  meta- 
morphoses; automaton,  automata;  criterion,  criteria  [or  criterion^;]  phe- 
nomenon, phenomena ;  cherub,  cherubim ;  seraph,  seraphim ;  beau,  beaux  [or 
beaus.] 

OBS.  6. — Some  nouns  (from  the  nature  of  the  things  meant)  have  no  plu- 
ral ;  as,  gold,  pride,  mcelmess. 

OBS.  7. — Proper  names  of  individuals,  strictly  used  as  such,  have  no 
plural.  But  when  several  persons  of  the  same  name  are  spoken  of,  the 
noun  becomes  in  some  degree  common,  and  admits  the  plural  form  and 
an  article;  as,  The  Stuarts — The  Ccesars :  so  likewise  when  such  nouns 
are  used  to  denote  character  ;  as,  "  The  Aristotles,  the  Tuttys,  and  the 
Livys." — Burgh. 

OBS.  8. — The  proper  names  of  nations  and  societies  are  generally  plural ; 
and,  except  in  a  direct  address,  they  are  usually  construed  with  the  definite 
article:  as,  The  Greeks — The  Jesuits. 

OBS.  9. — When  a  title  is  prefixed  to  a  proper  name  so  as  to  form  a  sort 
<>f  compound,  the  name,  and  not  the  title,  is  varied  to  form  the  plural  ;^  as. 
The  Miss  Howards — The  two  Mr.  darks.  But  a  title  not  regarded  as  a 
part  of  one  compound  name,  must  be  made  plural,  if  it  refer  to  more  than 
one;  as,  Messrs.  Lambert  and  Son — The  Lords  Calthorpe  and  Erskine— 
The  Lords  Bishops  of  Durham  and  St.  David's — llie  Lords  Commissioners 
of  Justiciary. 

OBS.  10. — Some  nouns  have  no  singular ;  as,  embers,  ides,  oats,  scissors, 
tongs,  vespers,  literati. 

OBS.  11. — Some  nouns  are  alike  in  both  numbers;  as,  sheep,  deer, vermin, 
swine,  hose,  means,  odds,  news,  species,  series,  apparatus.  The  following  are 
sometimes  construed  as  singular,  but  more  frequently,  and  more  properly,  as 
plural:  alms,  amends,  pains,  ricJies ;  ethics,  mathematics :  metaphysics,  optics, 
polities,  pneumatics,  and  other  similar  names  of  sciences.  Bellows  and  gal- 
loirs  are  properly  alike  in  both  numbers ;  (as,  "  Let  a  gallows  be  made." — 
EstJier,  v.  14.  "  The  bellows  are  burned." — Jer.  vi.  20 ;)  but  they  have  a 
regular  plural  in  vulgar  use.  Bolus,  fungus,  isthmus,  prospectus,  and  rebus, 
admit  the  regular  plural. 

OBS.  12. — Compounds  in  which  the  principal  word  is  put  first,  vary  the 
principal  word  to  form  the  plural,  and  the  adjunct  to  form  the  possessive 
case ;  as,  Sing,  fatlier-in-law,  Plur.  fathers-in-law,  Poss.  father-in-law's — 
Sing,  court-martial,  Plur.  courts-martial,  Poss.  court-martiats.  The  Posses- 
sive plural  of  such  nouns,  is  never  used. 

Ofivs.  13. — Compounds  ending  in  ful,  and  all  those  in  which  the  prince 
pal  word  is  put  last,  form  the  plural  in  the  same  manner  as  other  noune* 


ETYMOLOGY. NOUNS.  35 

85,  handful* ,  spoonfuls,  nwuthfuls,  fellow-servants,  man-servants,  outpourings, 
ingatherings,  doicnsittings. 

OBS.  14. — Nouns  of  multitude,  when  taken  collectively,  generally  ad- 
mit the  plural  form ;  as,  meeting,  meetings :  hut  when  taken  aistributivcly, 
they  have  a  plural  signification,  without  the  form;  as,  "The  jury  were  di- 
vided." 

OBS.  15. — When  other  parts  of  speech  become  nouns,  they  either  want 
the  plural,  or  form  it  regularly,  like  common  nouns  of  the  same  endings; 
as,  "  His  affairs  went  on  at  sixes  and  sevens" — Arbuthnot.  "  Some  math- 
ematicians have  proposed  to  compute  by  ticos ;  others,  by  fours;  others,  by 
twelves" — Churchill.  "  Three  fourths,  nine  tenths" — Id.  "  Time's  takings 
and  leavings" — Barton.  "  The  yeas  and  nays" — Newspaper.  "  The  ays 
and  noes." — Ibid.  "The  ins  and  the  outs." — Ibid.  "His  ands  and  his 
ors" — Mott.  "One  of  the  buts." — Fowle.  "In  raising  the  mirth  of  stu- 
pids."—Steele. 

GENDERS. 

Genders  are  modifications  that  distinguish  objects  in  re- 
gard  to  sex. 

OBS. — The  different  genders  are  founded  on  the  natural  distinction  of  sex 
in  animals,  and  on  the  absence  of  sex  in  other  things.  In  English,  they  be- 
long only  to  nouns  and  pronouns;  and  to  these  they  are  usually  applied 
agreeably  to  the  order  of  nature.  Pronouns  are  of  the  same  gender  as  the 
nouns  for  which  they  stand. 

There  are  three  genders ;  the  masculine,  the  feminine^ 
and  the  neuter. 

The  masculine  gender  is  that  which  denotes  animals 
of  the  male  kind  ;  as,  man. ^father,  king. 

The  feminine  gender  is  that  which  denotes  animals 
of  the  female  kind ;  as,  woman,  mother,  queen. 

The  neuter  gender  is  that  which  denotes  things  that 
are  neither  male  nor  female  ;  as,  pe?i,  ink,  paper. 

OBS.  1. — Some  nouns  are  equally  applicable  to  both  sexes;  as,  cousin, 
friend,  neighbour,  parent,  person,  servant.  The  gender  of  these  is  usually 
determined  by  the  context.  To  such  words,  some  grammarians  have  ap- 
plied the  unnecessary  and  improper  term  common  gender.  Murray  justly 
observes,  "  There  is  no  such  gender  belonging  to  the  language.  The  bu- 
siness of  parsing,  can  be  effectually  performed  without  navmg  recourse 
to  a  common  gender."  The  tenn  is  more  useful,  and  less  liable  to  objec- 
tion, as  applied  to  the  learned  languages;  but  with  us  it  is  plainly  a  sole- 
cism. 

OBS.  2. — Generic  names,  even  when  construed  as  masculine  or  feminine, 
often  virtually  include  both  sexes ;  as,  "  Hast  thou  given  the  horse  strength! 
hast  thou  clothed  his  neck  with  thunder1?" — "Doth  the  hawk  fly  by  thy 
wisdom,  and  stretch  her  wings  toward  the  south'?" — Job.  These  are  called 
epicene  nouns. 

OBS.  3. — Those  terms  which  are  equally  applicable  to  both  sexes,  (if 
they  are  not  expressly  applied  to  females,)  and  those  plurals  which  are 
known  to  include  both  sexes,  should  be  called  masculine  in  parsing ;  for, 
in  all  languages,  the  masculine  gender  is  considered  the  most  worthy,  and 
w  generally  employed  when  both  sexes  are  included  under  one  common 


36  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

OBS.  4. — The  sexes  are  distinguished  in  three  ways : 

I.  By  the  use  of  different  names:  as,  bachelor,  maid;  boy,  girl;  brother 
sister;  buck,  doe;  bull,  cow ;  cock,  hen;  drake,  duck;  carl,  countess ;  father, 
mother ;  friar,  nun ;  gander,  goose ;  hart,  roe  ;  Iwrse,  mare  ;  husband,  wife , 
king,  queen;  lad,  lass;  lord,  lady ;  man,  woman;  master,  mistress;  milter, 
spawner;  nephew,  niece;  ram,  ewe;  sloven,  slut;  son,  daughter;  stag,  hind; 
steer,  heifer;  uncle,  aunt;  wizard,  witch. 

II.  By   the   use   of  different   terminations:   as,   abbot,  abbess;   adminis- 
trator,   administratrix ;    adulterer,    adulteress  ;    bridegroom,,    bride ;    cater- 
er,   cateress ;    duke,    duchess ;    emperor,    emperess    cr    empress  ;    executor, 
executrix ;    governor,   governess;    hero,    heroine;    landgrave,    lanagravine 
margrave,  margravine ;   marquis,  marchioness ;    sorcerer,  sorceress ;   sultan, 
sultaness  or  sultana;  testator,  testatrix ;  tutor,  tutoress  or  tutress ;  w'dower 
widow. 

The  following  nouns  become  feminine  by  merely  adding  ess ;  baron,  dea* 
con,  heir,  host,  jew,  lion,  mayor,  patron,  peer,  poet,  priest,  prior,  prophet,  shep- 
herd, viscount. 

The  following  nouns  become  feminine  by  rejecting  the  last  vowel,  and 
adding  ess;  actor,  ambassador,  arbiter,  benefactor,  chanter,  conductor,  doctor^ 
elector,  enchanter,  founder,  hunter,  idolater,  inventor,  prince,  protector,  song- 
ster, spectator,  suitor,  tiger,  traitor,  votary. 

III.  By  prefixing  an  attribute  of  distinction :  as,  cock-sparrow,  hen-spar- 
row;  man-servant,  maid-servant;   he-goat,  she-goat;   male  relations,  female 
relations. 

OBS.  5. — The  names  of  things  without  life,  used  literally,  are  always 
of  the  neuter  gender.  But  inanimate  objects  are  often  represented  figu- 
ratively, as  having  sex.  Things  remarkable  for  power,  greatness,  or  sub- 
limity, are  spoken  of  as  masculine ;  as,  the  sun,  time,  death,  sleep,  fear, 
anger,  winter,  war.  Things  beautiful,  amiable,  or  prolific,  are  spoken  of 
as  feminine;  as,  the  moon,  earth,  nature,  fortune,  knowledge,  hope,  spring, 
peace. 

OBS.  6. — Nouns  of  multitude,  when  they  convey  the  idea  of  unity,  or 


take  the  plural  form,  are  of  the  neuter  gender;  but  when  they  convey  the 
idea  of  plurality  without  the  form,  they  follow  the  gender  of  the  individuals 
that  compose  the  assemblage. 

OBS.  7. — Creatures  whose  sex  is  unknown,  or  unnecessary  to  be  regard- 
ed, are  generally  spoken  of  as  neuter ;  as,  "He  fired  at  the  deer,  and  Wound- 
,ed  it." — "If  a  man  shall  steal  an  ox  or  a  sheep,  and  kill  it  or  sell  it;"  &c. 
Ex.  xxii.  1. 

CASES. 

Cases  are  modifications  that  distinguish  the  relations  of 
nouns  and  pronouns  to  other  words. 

OBS. — The  cases  are  founded  on  the  different  relations  under  which 
things  are  represented  in  discourse,  and  from  which  the  words  acquire 
correspondent  relations,  or  a  dependence  on  each  other  according  to  the 
sense.  In  English,  these  modifications,  or  relations,  belong  only  to  nouns 
and  pionouns.  Pronouns  are  not  necessarily  like  their  antecedents,  in 
case. 

There  are  three  cases ;  the  nominative,  the  possessive* 
and  the  objective. 

The  nominative  case  is  that  form  or  state  of  a  noun  or 
pronoun,  which  denotes  the  subject  of  a  verb:  as,  The 
boy  runs  ;  7  run.  • 


ETYMOLOGY. NOUNS.  37 

• 

OBS. — The  subject  of  a  verb  is  that  which  answers  to  who  or  what  before 
it;  as,  "The  boy  runs" — Who  runs?  The  boy.  Boy  is  therefore  here  in 
the  nominative  case. 

The  possessive  case  is  that  form  or  state  of  a  noun  or 
pronoun,  which  denotes  the  relation  of  property  :  as,  The 
boy^s  hat ;  my  hat. 

OBS.  1. — The  possessive  case  of  nouns  is  formed,  in  the  singular  number, 
by  adding  to  the  nominative  s  preceded  by  an  apostrophe ;  and,  in  the  plural, 
when  the  nominative  ends  in  s,  by  adding  an  apostrophe  only:  as,  sing. 
boy's;  plural,  boys'. 

OBS.  2. — Plural  nouns  that  do  not  end  in  s,  usually  form  the  possessive 
case  in  the  same  manner  as  the  singular ;  as,  man's,  men's. 

OBS.  3. — When  the  singular  and  the  plural  are  alike  in  the  nominative, 
the  apostrophe,  which  (as  Dr.  Johnson  has  shown)  is  merely  a  sign  of  the 
case,  and  not  of  elision,  ought  to  follow  the  s  in  the  plural,  to  distinguish  it 
from  the  singular ;  as,  sheep  s,  sheeps*. 

OBS.  4. — The  apostrophic  s  adds  a  syllable  to  the  noun,  when  it  will  not 
unite  with  the  sound  in  which  the  nominative  ends ;  as,  torch's,  pronounced 
torchiz. 

OBS.  5. — The  apostrophe  and  s  are  sometimes  added  to  mere  characters, 
to  denote  plurality,  and  not  the  possessive  case;  as,  Two  a's — three  b's — 
four  9's.  In  the  following  example  they  are  used  to  give  the  sound  of  a  ver- 
bal termination  to  words  that  are  not  properly  verbs :  "  When  a  man  in  a 
soliloquy  reasons  with  himself,  and  pro's  and  con's,  and  weighs  all  his  de- 
signs," &c. — Congreve. 

The  objective- case  is  that  form  or  state  of  a  noun  or 
pronoun,  which  denotes  the  object  of  a  verb,  participle,  or 
preposition :  as,  I  know  the  boy  ;  he  knows  me. 

OES.  1. — The  object  of  a  verb,  participle,  or  preposition,  is  that  which  an- 
swers to  whom  or  what  after  it;  as,  "I  know  the  boy" — I  know  whom? 
The  boy.  Boy  is  therefore  here  in  the  objective  case. 

OBS.  2. —  The  nominative  and  the  objective  of  nouns,  are  always  alike, 
being  distinguishable  from  each  other  only  by  their  place  in  a  sentence,  or 
their  simple  dependence  according  to  the  sense. 

DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS. 

The  declension  of  a  noun  is  a  regular  arrangement  of  its 
numbers  and  cases.  Thus : 


EXAMPLE  I. FRIEND. 

Sing.  Norn.         friend,  Plur.  Nom.  friends, 

Poss.          friend's,  Poss.  friends1 

Obj.  friend;  Obj.  friends. 

EXAMPLE   n. MAN. 

Sing.  Nom.         man,  Plur.  Nom.  men, 

Poss.         man's,  Poss.  men's, 

Obj>          man ;  Obj  men. 


88                                               ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

EXAMPLE  in. FOX. 

Sing.  Norn.         fox,  '    Plur   Nom.  foxes, 

Poss.          fox's,  Poss.  foxes', 

Obj.           fox;  Obj.  foxes. 

EXAMPLE   IV. FLY. 

Sing.  Nom.         fly,  Plur.  Nom.  flies, 

Poss.          fly's,  Poss.  flies1, 

Obj.           fly;  Obj.  flies. 


EXAMPLES  FOR  PARSING. 

CHAPTER  II.— ETYMOLOGICAL. 

In  the  Second  Chapter,  it  is  required  of  the  pupil — to  distinguish 
and  define  the  different  parts  of  speech,  and  the  classes  and  modi- 
fications of  the  articles  and  nouns. 

The  definitions  to  be  given  in  the  Second  Chapter,  are  two  for  an 
article,  six  for  a  noun — and  one  for  an  adjective,  a  pronoun,  a 
verb,  a  participle,  an  adverb,  a  conjunction,  a  preposition^  or  an 
interjection.  Thus : 

EXAMPLE  PARSED. 
"  James  is  a  lad  of  uncommon  talents." 

James  is  a  proper  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  masculine 
gender,  and  nominative  case. 

1.  A  noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  or  thing,  that  can  be  known 

or  mentioned. 

2.  A  proper  noun  is  the  name  of  some  particular  individual  or  people. 

3.  The  third  person  is  that  which  denotes  the  person  or  thing  merely 

spoken  OL 

4.  The  singular  number  is  that  which  denotes  but  one. 

5.  The  masculine  gender  is  that  which  denotes  animals  of  the  male 

kind. 

6.  The  nominative  case  is  that  form  or  state  of  a  noun  or  pronoun, 

which  denotes  the  subject  of  a  verb. 
/s  is  a  verb. 

1.  A  verb  is  a  word  that  signifies  to  be,  to  act,  or  to  be  acted  upon. 
A  is  the  indefinite  article. 

1.  An  article  is  a  word  placed  before  nouns,  to  limit  their  significa- 

tion. 

2.  The  indefinite  article  is  an  or  a,  which  denotes  one  thing  of  a  kind, 

but  not  any  particular  one. 

Lad  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  masculine 
gender,  and  nominative  case. 

1.  A  noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  or  thing,  that  can  be  known 

or  mentioned. 

2.  A  common  noun  is  the  name  of  a  sort,  kind,  or  class  of  things. 


ETYMOLOGY. PARSING.  39 

3.  The  third  person  is  that  which  denotes  the  person  or  thing  merely 

spoken  of. 

4.  The  singular  number  is  that  which  denotes  but  one. 

5.  The  masculine  gender  is  that  which  denotes  animals  of  the  male 

kind. 

6.  The  nominative  case  is  that  form  or  state  of  a  noun  or  pronoun, 

which  denotes  the  subject  of  a  verb. 

Of  is  a  preposition. 

1.  A  preposition  is  a  word  used  to  express  some  relation  of  different 
things  or  thoughts  to  each  other,  and  is  generally  placed  before  a 
noun  or  a  pronoun. 

Uncommon  is  an  adjective. 

1.  An  adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  noun  or  pronoun,  and  generally 
expresses  quality. 

Talents  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person,  plural  number,  neuter  gen- 
der, and  objective  case. 

1 .  A  noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  or  thing,  that  can  be  known 

or  mentioned. 

2.  A  common  noun  is  the  name  of  a  sort,  kind,  or  class  of  things. 

3.  The  third  person  is  that  which  denotes  the  person  or  thing  merely 

spoken  of. 

4.  The  plural  number  is  that  which  denotes  more  than  one. 

5.  The  neuter  gender  is  that  which  denotes  tilings  that  are  neither  male 

nor  female. 

6.  The  objective  case  is  that  form  or  state  of  a  noun  or  pronoun,  which 

denotes  the  object  of  a  verb,  participle,  or  preposition. 

LESSON  I. 

Science  strengthens  and  enlarges  the  mind. — Murray. 

A  large  ship,  traversing  the  ocean  by  the  force  of  the  wind, 
is  a  noble  proof  of  the  power  and  ingenuity  of  man. 

When  spring  returns,  the  trees  resume  their  verdure,  and  the 
plants  and  flowers  display  their  beauty. 

I  John  saw  these  things  and  heard  them. — Bible. 

And  the  king  spake  and  said  to  Daniel,  '  0  Daniel !  servant 
of  the  living  God,  is  thy  God,  whom  thou  servest  continually, 
able  to  deliver  thee  from  the  lions  ?' — Ib. 

LESSON  II. 

And  all  the  king's  servants,  that  were  in  the  king's  gate, 
bowed  and  reverenced  Haman  ;  but  Mordecai  bowed  not,  nor 
did  him  reverence. — Bible. 

Esther  put  on  her  royal  apparel,  and  stood  in  the  inner  court 
of  the  king's  house. — Ib. 

A  mother's  tenderness  and  a  father's  care  are  nature's  gifts  fof 
man's  advantage. — Murray. 

Then  shall  man's  pride  and  dulness  comprehend 
His  actions',  passions',  being's  use  and  end. — Pope. 


40  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

OP  THE  ADJECTIVE. 

An  Adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  noun  or  pronoun,  and 
generally  expresses  quality  :  as,  A  wise  man  ;  a  new  book. 
You  two  are  diligent. 

CLASSES. 

Adjectives  may  be  divided  into  six  classes;  namely. 
common,  proper,  numeral,  pronominal,  participial,  and 
compound. 

I.  A  common  adjective  is  any  ordinary  epithet,  or  ad- 
jective   denoting  quality  or   situation ;  as,    Good,    bad, 
peaceful,  warlike — eastern,  western,  outer,  inner. 

II.  A  proper  adjective  is  one  that  is  formed  from  a  pro- 
per name;  as,  American,  English,  Platonic. 

III.  A  numeral  adjective  is  one  that  expresses  a  defi- 
nite number  ;  as,  One,  two,  three,  four,  five,  six,  (fee. 

IV.  A  pronominal  adjective  is  a  definite  word  which 
may  either  accompany  its  noun,  or  represent  it  under- 
stood ;  as,  "  All  join  to  guard  what  each  desires  to  gain.' 
— Pope.     That  is,  All  men  join  to  guard  what  each  man 
desires  to  gain. 

V.  A  participial  adjective  is  one  that  has  the  form  of 
a  participle,  but  differs  from  it  by  rejecting  the  idea  of 
time  ;  as,  An  amusing  story. 

VI.  A  compound  .adjective,  is  one  that  consists  of  two 
or  more  words  joined  by  a  hyphen  ;  as  Nut-brown^  laugh- 
ter-loving, four-footed. 

OBS.  1. — Numeral  adjectives  are  of  three  kinds:  namely, 

1.  Cardinal;  as,  One,  two,  three,  four,  five,  six,  seven,  eight,  nine,  ten, 
eleven,  twelve,  thirteen,  fourteen,  fifteen,  &c. 

2.  Ordinal ;  as,  First,  second,  third,  fourth,  fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  eighth, 
ninth,  tenth,  eleventh,  twelfth,  thirteenth,  &c. 

3.  Multiplicative ;  as,  Single  or  alone,  double  or  twofold,  triple  or  three- 
fold, quadruple  or  fourfold,  quintuple  or  fivefold,  sextuple  or  sixfold,  septu- 
ple or  sevenfold,  octuple  or  eightfold,  &c. 

OBS.  2. — Compound  adjectives,  being  formed  at  pleasure,  are  very  numer- 
ous and  various.  Many  of  them  embrace  numerals,  and  run  on  in  a  series- 
as,  one-leaved,  two-leaved,  three-leaved,  four-leaved,  &c. 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Adjectives  have,  commonly,  no  modifications  but  com- 
parison. 

Comparison  is  a  variation  of  the  adjective  to  express 
quality  in  different  degrees  ;  as,  hard,  harder,  hardest. 

There  are  three  degrees  of  comparison ;  the  positive, 
the  comparative,  and  the  superlative. 


1 


ETYMOLOGY. ADJECTIVES.  41 

The  positive  degree  is  that  which  is  expressed  by  the 
adjective  in  its  simple  form  ;  as,  hard,  soft,  good. 

The  comparative  degree  is  that  which  exceeds  the 
positive  ;  as,  harder,  softer,  better. 

The  superlative  degree  is  that  which  is  not  exceeded ; 
as,  hardest,  softest,  best. 

Those  adjectives  whose  signification  does  not  admit  of  , 
different  degrees,  cannot  be  compared  ;  as,  two,  second,  all, 
right,  immortal,  infinite. 

Those  adjectives  which  may  be  varied  in  sense,  but  not 
in  form,  are  compared  by  means  of  adverbs ;  as,  skilful, 
more  skilful,  most  skilful — skilful,  less  skilful,  least  skilful. 

REGULAR    COMPARISON. 

Adjectives  are  regularly  compared,  when  the  comparative  de- 
gree is  expressed  by  adding  er,  and  the  superlative,  by  adding 
est  to  them  ;  as, 

Positive.  Comparative.  Superlative. 

great,  greater,  greatest. 

*wide,  wider,  widest. 

hot,  .       hotter,  hottest. 

The  regular  method  of  comparison  is  chiefly  applicable  to 
monosyllables,  and  to  dissyllables  ending  in  y  or  mute  e. 

COMPARISON    BY    ADVERBS. 

The  different  degrees  of  a  qua-lity  may  also  be  expressed,' 
with  precisely  the  same  import,  by  prefixing  to  the  adjective 
the  adverbs  more  and  most :  as,  wise,  more  wise,  most  wise ;  fa- 
mous, more  famous,  most  famous ;  amiable,  more  amiable,  most 
amiable. 

The  degrees  of  diminution  are  expressed,  in  like  manner,  by 
the  adverbs  less  and  least :  as,  wise,  less  wise,  least  wise ;  famous, 
less  famous,  least  famous  ;  amiable,  hss  amiable,  least  amiable. 

OBS.  1. — Adjectives  of  more  than  one  syllable,  except  dissylables  end- 
ing in  y  or  mute  e,  rarely  admit  a  change  of  termination,  but  are  rather  com- 
pared by  means  of  the  adverbs :  thus  we  say,  virtuous,  more  virtuous,  most 
virtuous ;  but  not  virtuous,  virtuouser,  virtuousest. 

OBS.  2 — The  prefixing  of  an  adverb  can  hardly  be  called  a  variation  of 
the  adjective;  the  words  may  with  more  propriety  be  parsed  separately,  the 
dte,  ree  being  ascribed  to  the  adverb. 

(IBS.  3. — The  degrees  in  which  qualities  may  exist  in  nature,  are  infinite- 
ly various;  but  the  only  degrees  with  which  the  grammarian  is  concerned, 
are  those  which  our  variation  of  the  adjective  or  adverb  enables  us  to  ex* 
press.  Whenever  the  adjective  itself  denotes  these  degrees,  they  properly  be- 


See  Rules  for  Spelling  EL  and  VI. 
4* 


42  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

long  to  it;  as,  worthy,  worthier,  worthiest.  If  an  adverb  is  employed  for 
this  purpose,  that  also  is  compared,  and  the  two  degrees  formed  are  properly 
its  own  ;  as,  worthy,  more  worthy,  most  worthy.  But  these  same  degrees 
may  be  otherwise  expressed ;  as,  worthy,  in  a  higher  degree  worthy,  in  thy 
highest  degree  worthy.  Here  also  the  adjective  worthy  is  virtually  com- 
pared as  before;  but  only  the  adjective  high  is  grammatically  modified.  Many 
grammarians  have  erroneously  parsed  the  adverbs  more  and  most,  less  and 
least,  as  parts  of  the  adjective. 


IRREGULAR    COMPARISON. 

The  following  adjectives  are  compared  irregularly :  good, 
better,  best ;  bad  or  ill,  worse,  worst ;  little,  less,  least ;  much,  more, 
most ;  many,  more,  most. 

OBS.  1. — In  English,  and  also  in  Latin,  most  adjectives  that  denote  place 
or  situation,  not  only  form  the  superlative  irregularly,  but  are  also  either  re- 
dundant or  defective  in  comparison.  Thus  : 

I.  The  following  nine  have  more  than  one  superlative:  far,  farther,  far- 
thest, farmost,  or  farthermost ;  near,  nearer,  nearest  or  next ;  fore,  former, 
foremost  or  Jirst ;  hind,  hinder,  hindmost  or  hindermost ;  in,  inner,  inmost 
or  innermost ;  out,  outer,  or  utter,  outmost  or  utmost,  outermost  or  uttermost ; 
up,  upper,  upmost  or  uppermost;  low,  lower,  lowest  or  lowermost ;  late,  later, 
or  latter,  latest  or  last. 

II.  The  following  five  want  the  positive:  [aft,  adv.]  after \  aftmost,  or  af- 
termost; [forth,  adv.]  further,  furthest,  or  furthermost;  hither,  hither  most ; 
nether,  nethermost ;  under,  undermost. 

III.  The  following  want  the  comparative :  front,  front-most ;  rear,  rear- 
most; head,  headmost;  end,  endmost ;  top,  topmost;  down,  downmost;  'mid 
or  middle,  midst,  midmost,  or  middlemost ;  north,  northmost ;    south,  south- 
most;    northern,    northernmost;    southern,  soutliemmost ;     eastern,   eastern- 
most;   western,  westernmost. 

OBS.  2. — Many  of  these  irregular  adjectives  are  also  in  common  use,  as 
nouns,  adverbs,  or  prepositions;  the  sense  in  which  they  are  employed  will 
show  to  what  class  they  belong. 

OBS.  3. — The  words  fore  and  hind,  front  and  rear,  head  and  end,  right 
and  left,  in  and  out,  high  and  low,  top  and  bottom,  up  and  down,  upper  and 
under,  mid  and  after,  are  often  joined  in  composition  with  other  words;  and 
some  of  them,  when  used  as  adjectives  of  place,  are  rarely  separated  from 
their  nouns ;  as,  tn-land,  mid-sea,  after-ages,  &c. 

OBS.  4. — It  maybe  remarked  of  the  comparatives, /ormer  and  latter  or 
hinder,  upper  and  under  or  nether,  inner  and  outer  or  utter,  after  and  hith- 
er  ;  as  well  as  of  the  Latin  superior  and  inferior,  anterior  and  posterior,  inte- 
rior and  exterior,  prior  and  ulterior,  senior  and  junior,  major  and  minor ; 
that  they  cannot,  like  other  comparatives,  be  construed  with  the  conjunction 
than,  introducing  the  latter  term  of  comparison;  for  we  never  say,  one  thing 
is  former,  superior,  fyc.  THAN  an  other. 

OBS.  5. — Common  adjectives,  or  epithets  denoting  quality,  are  more  nu- 
merous than  all  the  other  classes  put  together.  Many  of  these,  and  a  few 
that  are  pronominal,  may  be  varied  by  comparison  ;  and  some  participial  ad- 
jectives may  be  compared  by  means  of  the  adverbs.  But  adjectives  formed 
from  proper  names,  all  the  numerals,  and  most  of  the  compounds,  are  in  no 
way  susceptible  of  comparison. 

OBS.  6. — Nouns  are  often  used  as  adjectives;  as,  An  iron  bar — An  even- 
ing school — A  maliogany  chair — A  South-Sea  dream.  These  also  are  inca- 
pable of  comparison. 

OBS    7. — The  numerals  are  often  used  as  nouns ;  and,  as  such,  are  regu- 


ETYMOLOGY. PARSING.  43 

larly  declined;  as,  Such  a  one — One's  own  self — The  little  ones — By  ten* — 
For  twenty's  sake — By  fifties — Two  millions. 

OBS.  8. — Comparatives,  and  the  word  other,  are  sometimes  also  employed 
as  nouns,  and  have  the  regular  declension;  as,  Our  superiors — His  betters — • 
The  elder's  advice — An*  other's  wo — Let  others  do  as  they  will.  But,  as  ad- 
jectives, these  words  are  invariable. 

OBS.  9. — Pronominal  adjectives,  -when  their  nouns  are  expressed,  simply 
relate  to  them,  and  have  no  modifications :  except  this  and  Mutt,  which  form 
the  plural  tiiese  and  those;  and  miLch,  many,  and  a  few  others,  which  are 
compared. 

OBS.  10. — Pronominal  adjectives,  when  their  nouns  arc  not  expressed, 
may  be  parsed  as  representing  them  in  person,  number,  gender,  and  case ; 
but  those  who  prefer  it,  may  supply  the  ellipsis,  and  parse  the  adjective  sim- 
ply as  an  adjective. 

OBS.  11. — The  following  are  the  principal  pronominal  adjectives:  All, 
any,  both,  each,  either,  every,  few,  former,  Jirst,  latter,  last,  little,  much, 
many,  neither,  no  or  nonej  one,  other,  same,  some,  such,  this,  that,  which, 
what. 

OBS.  12. —  Which  and  wliat,  when  they  are  not  prefixed  to  nouns,  are,  for 
the  most  part,  relative  or  interrogative  pronouns. 


EXAMPLES  FOR  PARSING. 

CHAPTER  III.— ETYMOLOGICAL. 

In  the  Third  Chapter,  it  is  required  of  the  pupil — to  distinguish 
and  define  the  different  parts  of  speech,  and  the  classes  and  modi- 
fications of  the  articles,  nouns,  and  adjectives. 

The  definitions  to  be  given  in  the  Third  Chapter,  are  two  for  an 
article,  six  for  a  noun,  three,  for  an  adjective — and  one  for  a  pro- 
noun, a  verb,  a  participle,  an  adverb,  a  conjunction,  a  preposition^ 
or  an  interjection.  Thus : 

EXAMPLE  PARSED. 

"  I  prefer  the  shortest  course,  though  some  other  may  be  less 
intricate." 

/  is  a  pronoun. 

1.  A  pronoun  is  a  word  used  in  stead  of  a  noun. 
Prefer  is  a  verb. 

1.  A  verb  is  a  word  that  signifies  to  be,  to  act,  or  to  be  acted  upon. 
The  is  the  definite  article. 


*  There  seems  to  be  no  good  reason  for  joining  an  and  other.  An  here  ex- 
cludes any  other  article  ;  and  analogy  and  consistency  require  that  the  words 
be  s''p:ir;ii»'il.  Their  union  has  led  sometimes  to  an  improper  repetition  of  the 
article  ;  as,  '  Another  such  a  man,' — for,  '  An  other  such  man.' 

t  No  and  none,  seem  to  be  only  different  forms  of  the  same  adjective  ;  the 
former  being  used  before,  a  noun  expressed,  and  the  latter  wlien  the  noun  ia 
understood,  or  not  placed  after  the  adjective  ;  as,  "  For  none  of  us  liYeth  to 
himself,  and  no  man  dielh  to  lumself." — Romans,  xiv  7 


44  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

1.  An  article  is  a  word  placed  before  nouns,  to  limit  their  significa- 

tion. 

2.  The  definite  article  is  the,  which  denotes  some  particular  thing  or 

things. 

Shortest  is  a  common  adjective,  of  the  superlative  degree ;  compared,  short t 
sJiorter,  shortest. 

1.  An  adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  noun  or  pronoun,  and  generally 

expresses  quality. 

2.  A  common  adjective  is  any  ordinary  epithet,  or  adjective  denoting 

quality  or  situation. 

3.  The  superlative  degree  is  that  which  is  not  exceeded. 

Course  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  neuter 
gender,  and  objective  case. 

1.  A  noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  or  thing,  that  can  be 

known  or  mentioned, 

2.  A  common  noun  is  the  name  of  a  sort,  kind,  or  class  of  things. 

3.  The  third  person  is  that  which  denotes  the  person  or  thing  merely 

spoken  of. 

4.  The  singular  number  is  that  which  denotes  but  one. 

5.  The  neuter  gender  is  that  which  denotes  things  that  are  neither  male 

nor  female. 

6.  The  objective  case  is  that  form  or  state  of  a  noun  or  pronoun,  which 

denotes  the  object  of  a  verb,  participle,  or  preposition. 

Though  is  a  conjunction. 

1.  A  conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  words  or  sentences  in 
construction,  and  to  show  the  dependence  of  the  terms  so  con- 
nected. 

Some  is  a  pronominal  adjective,  not  compared. 

1.  An  adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  noun  or  pronoun,  and  generally 

expresses  quality. 

2.  A  pronominal  adjective  is  a  definitive  word  which  may  either  accom- 

pany its  noun,  or  represent  it  understood. 

3.  Those  adjectives  whose  signification  does  not  admit  of  different  de- 

grees, cannot  be  compared. 

Other  is  a  pronominal  adjective,  representing  course  understood,  in  the  third 
person,  singular  number,  neuter  gender,  and  nominative  case. 
[See  Obs.  10th,  page  43.] 

1.  An  adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  noun  or  pronoun,  and  generally  ex- 

presses quality. 

2.  A  pronominal  adjective  is  a  definitive  word  which  may  either  accom- 

pany its  noun,  or  represent  it  understood. 

3.  The  third  person  is  that  which  denotes  the  person  or  thing  merely 

spoken  of. 

4.  The  singular  number  is  that  which  denotes  but  one. 

5.  The  neuter  gender  is  that  which  denotes  things  that  are  neither  male 

nor  female. 

6.  The  nominative  case  is  that  form  or  state  of  a  noun  or  pronoun, 

which  denotes  the  subject  of  a  verb. 
May  be  is  a  verb. 

1.  A  verb  is  a  word  that  signifies  to  be,  to  act,  or  to  bt  acted  upon. 
Less  is  an  adverb. 

1.  An  adverb  is  a  word  added  to  a  verb,  a  participle,  an  adjective,  or 
an  other  adverb ;  and  generally  expresses  time,  place,  degree,  or 
manner. 
Intricate  is  a  common  adjective,  compared  by  means  of  the  adverbs. 

1.  An  adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  noun  or  pronoun,  and  generally 
expresses  quality. 


ETYMOLOGY. PRONOUNS.  45 

2.  A  common  adjective  is  any  ordinary  epithet,  or  adjectivB  denoting 

quality  or  situation. 

3.  Those  adjectives  which  may  he  varied  in  sense,  but  not  in  form,  are 

compared  by  means  of  adverbs. 

LESSON  I. 

There  is  an  easier  and  better  way  than  this. 

Earthly  joys  are  few  and  transitory. 

Heavenly  rewards  are  complete  and  eternal. 

The  best  and  wisest  men  are  sometimes  in  fault. 

Demosthenes  was  a  famous  Grecian  orator. 

This  plain  old  man  has  more  wit  than  all  his  opponents. 

The  three  rooms  on  the  second  floor,  are  smaller  and  less 
convenient  than  the  others. 

The  largest  and  most  glorious  machines  contrived  and  erect- 
ed by  human  skill,  are  not  worthy  of  a  comparison  with  the 
magnificent  productions  of  nature. 

LESSON  II. 

The  first  years  of  man  must  make  provision  for  the  last. 
External  things  are  naturally  variable,  but  truth  and  reason 
are  always  the  same. — Johnson. 

1  To  him  that  lives  well,'  answered  the  hermit,  {  every  form 
of  life  is  good ;  nor  can  I  give  any  other  rule  for  choice,  than 
to  remove  from  all  apparent  evil.' — Id. 

Come,  calm  Content,  serene  and  sweet ! 
O  gently  guide  my  pilgrim  feet 

To  find  thy  hermit  cell ; 
Where,  in  some  pure  are  equal  sky, 
Beneath  thy  soft  indulgent  eye, 

The  modest  virtues  dwell. — Barbauld. 


OF  THE  PRONOUN. 

A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  in  stead  of  a  noun :  as,  The  boy 
loves  his  book ;  he  has  long  lessons,  and  he  learns  them  welL 

OBS.  1. — The  word  for  which  a  pronoun  stands,  is  called  its  antecedent, 
because  it  usually  precedes  the  pronoun.  But  some  have  limited  the  term 
vntecederit,  to  the  word  represented  by  a  relative. 

OBS.  2. — The  pronouns  7  and  than  in  their  different  modifications,  stand 
tnmediately  for  persons  that  are,  in  general,  sufficiently  known  without  be- 
ing named;  (/  meaning  the  speaker,  and  thou  the  hearer;)  their  antecedents 
ire  therefore  generally  understood. 

OBS.  3. — The  other  personal  pronouns  are  sometimes  taken  in  a  general 
»r  absolute  sense,  to  denote  persons  or  things  not  previously  mentioned ;  as, 
*He  that  hath  knowledge,  spareth  his  words." 

OBS.  4. — A  pronoun  with  which  a  question  is  asked,  stands  for  some  per- 
son or  thing  unknown  to  the  speaker;  the  noun,  therefore,  cannot  occur 
before  it,  but  may  be  used  after  it  vr  in  stead  of  it. 


46  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

OBS.  5. — The  personal  and  the  interrogative  pronouns  often  stand  in 
construction  as  the  antecedents  to  other  pronouns;  as,  He  tliat  arms  hia 
intent  with  virtue  is  invincible." — "  Wlio  that  has  any  moral  sense,  dares 
tell  lies?" 

CLASSES. 

Pronouns  are  divided  into  three  classes ;  personal,  re*- 
ative,  and  interrogative. 

I.  A  personal  pronoun^  is  a  pronoun  that  shows,  by 
its  form,  of  what  person  it  is. 

The  simple  personal  pronouns  are  five  :  na  mely,  JT  of 
the  first  person ;  thou,  of  the  second  person ;  he,  she,  and 
it,  of  the  third  person. 

The  compound  personal  pronouns  are  also  five :  name- 
ly, myself,  of  the  first  person ;  thyself,  of  the  second  per- 
Bon ;  himself,  herself,  and  itself,  of  the  third  person. 

II.  A  relative  pronoun  is  a  pronoun  that  represents  an 
antecedent  word  or  phrase,  and  connects  different  clauses 
of  a  sentence. 

The  relative  pronouns  are  who,  which,  what,  and 
that ;  and  the  compounds  whoever  or  whosoever,  which- 
ever or  whichsoever,  whatever  or  whatsoever. 

What  is  a  kind  of  double  relative,  equivalent  to  that 
or  those  which  ;  and  is  to  be  parsed,  first  as  antecedent, 
and  then  as  relative. 

III.  An  interrogative  pronoun  is   a  pronoun  with 
which  a  question  is  asked. 

The  interrogative  pronouns  are  who,  which*  and  what ; 
being  the  same  in  form  as  relatives. 

OBS.  1. — Who  is  usually  applied  to  persons  only;  which,  though  formerly 
applied  to  persons,  is  now  confined  to  animals  and  inanimate  things  r  what 
(as  a  mere  pronoun)  is  applied  to  things  only :  that  is  applied  indifferent!} 
to  persons,  animals,  or  things. 

OBS.  2. — The  pronoun  what  has  a  twofold  relation,  and  is  often  used  (by 
ellipsis  of  the  noun)  both  as  antecedent  and  relative,  being  equivalent  to 
that  which  or  the  thing  which.  In  this  double  relation,  what  represents  two 
cases  at  the  same  time :  as,  "He  is  ashamed  of  what  he  has  done;"  that  is. 
of  tliat  [thing]  which  he  has  done.  It  is  usually  of  the  singular  number, 
though  sometimes  plural ;  as,  "  I  must  turn  to  the  faults,  or  what  appear 
such  to  me." — Byron.  "  All  distortions  and  mimicries,  as  such,  are  what 
raise  aversion  in  stead  of  pleasure." — Steele. 

OBS.  3. —  What  is  sometimes  used  both  as  an  adjective  and  a  relative  at  the 
same  time,  and  is  placed  before  the  noun  which  it  represents:  as,  "  What 
money  we  had  was  taken  away ;"  that  is,  All  the  money  that  we  had,  &c. 

"  What  man  but  enters,  dies ;"  that  is,  Any  man  10/10,  &c.  "  What 

god  but  enters  yon  forbidden  field." — Pope.  Indeed,  it  does  not  admit 
of  being  construed  after  a  noun,  as  a  simple  relative.  The  compound 
ichatever  or  whatsoever  has  the  same  peculiarities  of  construction  ;  as, 


ETYMOLOGY. PRONOUNS.  47 

11  We  will  certainly  do  whatsoever  thing  gocth  forth  out  of  our  own  mouth." 
— Jer.  xliv.  17. 

OBS.  4. —  Who,  which,  and  what,  when  the  affix  ever  or  soever  is  added, 
have  an  unlimited  signification ;  and,  as  some  general  term,  such  as  any 
person,  or  any  thing,  is  usually  employed  as  the  antecedent,  they  are  aU 
commonly  followed  by  two  verbs:  as,  "  Whoever  attends,  will  improve;* 
that  is,  Any  person  wlio  attends,  will  improve.  In  parsing,  supply  the  ante- 
cedent. 

OBS.  5. —  Whidi  and  what  are  often  prefixed  to  nouns  as  definitive  or  in- 
terrogative adjectives ;  and,  as  such,  may  be  applied  to  persons  as  well  as  to 
things:  as,  "  What  man V '— "  Which  boy  V 

OBS.  6. — The  word  that  is  a  relative  pronoun,  when  it  is  equivalent  to 
who,  whom,  or  which;  as,  "The  days  that  [which]  are  past,  are  gone  for- 
ever." It  is  a  definitive  or  pronominal  adjective,  when  it  relates  to  a  noun 
expressed  or  understood  after  it;  as,  "  That  book  is  new."  In  other  cases, 
it  is  a  conjunction;  as,  "Live  well,  that  you  may  die  well." 

OBS.  7. — The  relative  that  has  this  peculiarity,  that  it  cannot  follow  the 
word  on  which  its  case  depends:  thus,  it  is  said,  [John,  xiii.  29.]  "Buy 
those  things  that  we  have  need  of;"  but  we  cannot  say,  "Buy  those  things 
of  that  we  have  need." 

OBS.  8. — The  word  as,  though  usually  a  conjunction  or  an  adverb,  has 
sometimes  the  construction  of  a  relative  pronoun ;  as,  "  The  Lord  added  to 
the  church  daily  such  [persons]  as  should  be  saved." — Acts,  ii.  47. 

OBS.  9. —  Whether  was  formerly  used  as  an  interrogative  pronoun,  refer- 
ring to  one  of  two  things;  as,  "  Whether  is  greater,  the  gold  or  the  templet* 
— Matt,  xxiii.  17. 

OBS.  10. — Interrogative  pronouns  differ  from  relatives  chiefly  in  this  ; 
that,  as  the  subject  referred  to  is  unknown  to  the  speaker,  they  do  not 
relate  to  a  preceding  noun,  but  to  something  which  is  to  be  expressed  in  the 
answer  to  the  question.  Their  person,  number,  and  gender,  therefore,  are 
not  regulated  by  an  antecedent  noun ;  but  by  what  the  speaker  supposes  of 
a  subject  which  may,  or  may  not,  agree  with  them  in  these  respects :  as, 
"  What  lies  there T'  Ans.  "Two  men  asleep." 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Pronouns  have  the  same  modifications  as  nouns ; 
namely,  Persons:  Numbers,  Genders,  and  Cases. 

OB§.  1. — In  the  personal  pronouns,  most  of  these  properties  are  distin- 
guished by  the  words  themselves ;  in  the  relative  and  the  interrogative  pro- 
nouns, they  are  ascertained  chiefly  by  the  antecedent  and  the  verb. 

OBS.  2. — The  personal  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons,  are 
equally  applicable  to  both  sexes;  and  should  be  considered  masculine  or 
feminine  according  to  the  known  application  of  them.  [See  Levizac's 
French  Gram.  p.  73.]  The  speaker  and  the  hearer,  being  present  to  each 
other,  of  course  know  the  sex  to  which  they  respectively  belong;  and, 
whenever  they  appear  in  narrative,  we  are  told  who  they  are.  In  Latin,  an 
adjective  or  a  participle  relating  to  these  pronouns,  is  varied  to  agree  with 
Ihem  in  number,  gender,  and  case;  as, 

Mistrce.  hoc  tamen  unum 

Exequere,  Anna,  mihi :  solam  nam  perfidus  ille 
Te  colere,  arcanos  etiam  tibi  credere  sensus ; 
Sola  viri  molles  aditus  et  tempora  n6ras. —  Virgil. 

OBS.  3. — Many  grammarians  deny  the  first  person  of  nouns,  and  the 
gender  of  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons ;  and  at  the  same  time 


48  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

teach,  thatj  "  Pronouns  must  always  agree  with  their  antecedents,  and  the 
nouns  for  which  they  stand,  in  gender,  number,  and  person." — Murray'* 
Gram.  2d  Ed.  1796.  Now,  no  two  words  can  agree  in  any  property  which 
belongs  not  to  both  ! 

DECLENSION  OP  PRONOUNS. 

The  declension  of  a  pronoun  is  a  regular  arrangement  of  its 
numbers  and  cases. 

SIMPLE    PERSONALS. 

The  simple  personal  pronouns  are  thus  declined : 

I,  of  the  FIRST  PERSON,  any*  gender. 
Sing     Nom.  I,  Plur.   Nom.  we, 

Poss.    my,  or  mine,  Poss.    our,  or  ours, 

Obj.      me  j  Obj.     us. 

THOU,  of  the  SECOND  PERSON,  any  gender. 
Sing.    Nom.  thou,  Plur.  Nom.  ye,f  or  you, 

Poss.    thy,  or  thine,  Poss.    your,  or  yours, 

Obj.      thee ;  Obj.      you. 

HE,  of  the  THIRD  PERSON,  masculine  gender. 
Sing.    Nom.  he,  Plur.   Nom.  they, 

Poss.    his,  Poss.    their,  or  theirs, 

Obj.     him;  Obj.      them. 

SHE,  of  the  THIRD  PERSONJ  feminine  gender. 
Sing.    Nom.  she,  Plur.  Nom.  they, 

Poss.    her,  or  hers,  Poss.    their,  or  theirs, 

Obj.      her ;  Obj.     them. 

IT,  of  the  THIRD  PERSON,  neuter  gender. 
Siing.    Nom.  it,  Plur.  Nom.  they, 

Poss.    its,J  Poss.    their,  or  theirs, 

Obj.      it;  Obj.     them. 

*  That  the  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons  are  sometimes  mascu- 
line and  sometimes  feminine,  is  perfectly  certain ;  but  whether  they  can  or 
cannot  be  neuter,  is  a  question  difficult  to  be  decided.  To  things  inanimate 
they  are  only  applied  figuratively ;  and  the  question  is,  whether  the  figure  al- 
ways necessarily  changes  the  gender  of  the  antecedent  noun.  Pronouns  aro 
of  the  same  gender  as  the  nouns  for  which  they  stand ;  and  if,  in  the  follow- 
ing example,  gold  and  diamond  are  neuter,  so  is  the  pronoun  me.  And,  if  not 
neuter,  of  what  gender  are  they  ? 

"  Where  thy  true  treasure  ?     Gold  says,  '  Not  in  me ;' 
And,  '  Not  in  me,'  the  diamond.     Gold  is  poor." — Young. 

t  The  use  of  the  pronoun  ye  is  confined  to  the  solemn  style,  and  to  the  bur- 
lesque. In  the  latter,  it  is  sometimes  improperly  used  for  the  objective  case, 

|  In  ancient  times,  he,  his,  and  him,  were  applied  to  things  neuter,  In  our 
translation  of  the  Bible,  the  pronoun  it  is  employed  in  the  nominative  and  tho 


ETYMOLOGY. PRONOUNS.  49 

OBS.  1. — Most  of  the  personal  pronouns  have  two  forms  of  the  pos^essire 
case,  in  each  number:  as,  my  or  mine,  our  or  ours:  thy  or  thine,  your  or 
yours;  her  or  hers,  their  or  tkeira.  The  former  is  used  before  a  noun  ex- 
pressed; the  latter,  when  the  governing  noun  is  understood,  or  so  placed 
as  not  immediately  to  follow  the  pronoun;  as,  "My  powers  are  thint.'' — 
Montgomery. 

OBS.  2. — Mine  and  thine  were  formerly  used  before  all  words  beginning 
with  a  vowel  sound;  my  and  thy,  before  others:  as,  "It  was  thou,  a  man, 
mine  eqi^il,  ray  guide,  and  mine  acquaintance." — Psalm.  But  this  usage 
in  now  obsolete,  or  peculiar  to  the  poets ;  as, 

u  Time  writes  no  wrinkle    on  thine  azure  brow." — Byron. 

COMPOUND    PERSONALS. 

The  word  self*  added  to  the  simple  personal  pronouns,  forms 
the  class  of  compound  personal  pronouns ;  which  are  used  when 
an  action  reverts  upon  the  agent,  and  also  when  some  persons 
are  to  be  distinguished  from  others :  as,  sing,  myself,  plur.  our- 
selves; sing,  thyself,  plur.  yourselves;  sing,  himself*]  plur.  them- 
selves; sing,  lierself,  plur.  themselves;  sing,  itself,  plur.  themselves. 
They  all  want  the  possessive  case,  and  are  alike  in  the  nomi- 
native and  objective. 

RELATIVES    AND    INTERROGATIVE*. 

The  relative  and  the  interrogative  pronouns  are  thus  de- 
clined : 

WHO,  applied  only  to  persons. 

Sing.    Nom.  who,  Plur.    Nom.  who, 

Poss.    whose,  Poss.   whose, 

Obj.     whom;  Obj.     wtom. 

WHICH,  applied  to  animals  a?id  things. 
Sing.    Nom.  which,  Plur.    Nom.  which, 

Poss.    J Poss.    

Obj.     which  Obj.      which 

WHAT,  generally  applied  to  things. 
Sing.    Nom.  what,  Plur.    Nom.  what, 

Poss.    Poss.    

Obj.     what;  Obj.      what. 

objective,  but  his  is  retained  in  the  possessive,  neuter;  as,  "  Look  not  thou 
upon  the  wine,  when  it  is  red,  xvhen  it  giveth  his  colour  in  the  cup,  when  it 
moveth  itself  aright." — Prov.  xi^i.  31.  Its  is  not  found  in  the  Bible,  except 
by  misprint. 

*  The  word  self  was  originally  an  adjective;  but  when  used  alone,  it  i> 
now  generally  a  noun.  This  may  have  occasioned  the  diversity  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  compound  personal  pronouns.  Dr.  Johnson  calls  self  a  pron  >un  ; 
but  ke  explains  it  as  being  both  adjective  and  substantive. 

t  Hissclf,  itsself,  and  theirselvcs,  are  more  analogical  than  himself  itself, 
themselves;  but  custom  has  rejected  the  former,  and  established  the  lat'er. 
When  an  adjective  is  prefixed  to  self,  the  pronouns  are  written  separately  iii 
the  possessive  case ;  as,  My  single  "self—  My  own  self — His  own  self — Their 
own  selves. 

t  Whose  is  sometimes  used  as  the  possessive  case  of  which ;  as,  "  A  religion 
whose  origin  is  divine." — Blair. 

5 


50  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

THAT,  applied  to  persons,  animals,  arid  things. 
Sing.    Nom.  that,  Plur.    Nom.   that, 

Poss.    Poss.    

Obj.     that;  Obj.      that. 

COMPOUND    RELATIVES. 

The  compound  relative  pronouns,  whoever  or  whosoever -, 
ever  or  whichsoever •,  and  whatever  or  whatsoever,  are  declined  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  simples,  who,  which,  what. 


EXAMPLES  FOR  PARSING. 

CHAPTER  IV.— ETYMOLOGICAL. 

In  the  Fourth  Chapter,  it  is  required  of  the  pupil — to  distin- 
guish and  define  the,  different  parts  of  speech,  and  the  classes 
and  modifications  of  the  articles,  nouns,  adjectives,  and  pro- 
nouns. 

The  definitions  to  be  given  in  the  Fourth  Chapter  are,  two  for  an 
article,  six  for  a  noun,  three,  for  an  adjective,  six  for  a  pronoun 
-<—and  one  for  a  verb,  a  participle,  an  adverb,  a  conjunction,  a 
preposition,  or  an  interjection.  Thus  : 

EXAMPLE  PARSED. 

"She  met  them/' 

She  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  feminine 
gender,  and  nominative  case. 

1.  A  pronoun  is  a  word  used  in  stead  of  a  noun. 

2.  A  personal  pronoun  is  a  pronoun  that  shows,  by  its  form,  of  what 

person  it  is. 

3.  Tne  third  person  is  that  which  denotes  the  pexson  or  thing  merely 

spoken  of. 

4.  The  singular  number  is  that  which  denotes  but  one. 

5.  The  feminine  gender  is  that  which  denotes  animals  of  the  female 

kind. 

6.  The  nominative  case  is  that  form  or  state  of  a  noun  or  pronoun, 

which  denotes  the  subject  of  a  verb. 
.I/if/  is  a  verb. 

I.  A  verb  is  a  word  that  signifies  to  be,  to  act,  or  to  be  acted  upon. 
Tli&n  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  plural  number,  masculine 
gender,  and  objective  case. 

1 .  A  pronoun  is  a  word  used  in  stead  of  a  noun. 

2.  A  pers/onal  pronoun  is  a  pronoun  that  shows,  by  its  form,  of  what 

person  it  is. 

3.  Tne  third  person  is  that  which  denotes  the  person  or  thing  merely 

spoken  of. 

4.  The  plural  number  is  that  which  denotes  more  than  one. 

5.  The  masculine  gender  is  that  which  denotes  animals  of  the  male 

kind. 

6.  The  objective  case  is  that  form  or  state  of  a  noun  or  pronoun,  which 

denotes  the  object  of  a  verb,  participle,  or  preposition. 


ETYMOLOGY. VERBS.  51 

LESSON  I. 

I  who  was  present,  know  the  particulars. 
He  who  has  not  virtue,  is  not  truly  wise. 
An  enemy  that  disguises  himself  under  the  veil  of  friendship, 
is  worse  than  one  that  d-eclares  open  hostility. 

He  that  improperly  reveals  a  secret,  injures  both  himself  and 
them  to  whom  he  tells  it. 

Eye  me,  blest  Providence,  and  square  my  trial 
To  my  proportion'd  strength  ! — Shepherd,  lead  on. 

LESSON  II. 

All  men  have  their  frailties.  Whoever  looks  for  a  friend 
without  imperfections,  will  never  find  what  he  seeks  :  we  love 
ourselves  with  all  our  faults  ;  and  we  ought  to  love  our  friends 
in  like  manner. 

Selina's  benevolenoe  and  piety  engaged  the  esteem  of  all 
who  knew  her. 

When  the  Saxons  subdued  the  Britons,  they  introduced  into 
England  their  own  language ;  which  was  a  dialect  of  the  Teu 
tonic,  or  Gothic. — Allen. 

LESSON  III. 

Disguise  thyself  as  thou  wilt,  still,  Slavery !  still  thou  art  a  bit- 
ter draught.;  and  though  thousands  in  all  ages  have  been  made 
to  drink  of  thee,  thou  art  no  less  bitter  on  that  account. — Sterne. 
Redeem  we  time  ? — its  loss  we  dearly  buy. 
What  pleads  Lorenzo  for  his  high-priz'd  sports  ? 
lie  pleads  time's  num'rous  blanks  ;  he  loudly  pleads 
The  straw-like  trifles  on  life's  common  stream. 
From  whom  those  blanks  and  trifles,  but  from  thee  1 
No  blank,  no  trifle,  nature  made  or  meant. — Young. 


OF  THE  YERB. 

A  Verb  is  a  word  that  signifies  to  be,  to  act,  or  to  be 
acted  upon :  as,  I  am,  I  rule,  I  am  ruled  ;  I  love,  thou 
lovest,  he  loves. 

CLASSES. 

Verbs  are  divided,  with  respect  to  their  form,  into  two 
classes  ;  regular  and  irregular. 

I.  A  regular  verb  is  a  verb  that  forms  the  preterit  and 
the  perfect  participle  by  assuming  d  or  ed  ;  as,  love,  IOVED, 
loving,  IOVED. 

II.  An  irregular  verb  is  a  verb  that  does  not  form  the 


52  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

preterit  and  the  perfect  participle  by  assuming  d  or  ed  ;  at, 
saw,  seeing,  seen. 


OBS.  —  Regular  verbs  form  their  preterit  and  perfect  participle,  by  adding 
d  to  final  e,  and  ed  to  all  other  terminations.  The  verb  /tear,  heard,  hearing 
heard,  adds  d  to  r,  and  is  therefore  irregular. 

Verbs  are  divided,  with  respect  to  their  signification,  into 
four  classes:  active-transitive,  active-intransitive,  pas- 
sive,  and  neuter. 

I.  An  active-transitive  verb  is  a  verb  that  expresses  an 
action  which  has  some  person  or  thing  for  its  object  ;  as, 
"  Cain  slew  Abel." 

II.  An  active-intransitive  verb  is  a  verb  that  expresses 
an  action  which  has  no  person  or  thing  for  its  object  ;  as, 
"  John  walks." 

III.  A  passive  verb  is  a  verb  that  represents  its  subject, 
or  nominative,  as  being  acted   upon  ;    as,    "I  am  com- 
pelled." 

IV.  A  neuter  verb  is  a  verb  that  expresses  neither  ac- 
tion nor  passion,  but  simply  being,  or  a  state  of  being  ;  as, 
"  Thou  art—  He  sleeps." 

OBS.  1.  —  In  most  grammars  and  dictionaries,  verbs  are  divided  into  three 
-Masses  only  ;  active,  passive,  and  neuter.  In  such  a  division,  the  class  of  ac- 
Ate  verbs  includes  those  only  which  are  active-transitive,  and  all  the  active* 
intransitive  verbs  are  called  neuter.  But,  in  the  division  adopted  above,  ac- 
tive-intransitive verbs  are  made  a  distinct  clnss  ;  and  those  only  are  regarded 
as  neuter,  which  imply  a  state  of  existence  without  action.  When,  there- 
fore, we  speak  of  verbs  without  reference  to  their  regimen,  we  apply  the  sim- 
ple term  active  to  all  those  which  express  action.,  whether  transitive  or  intran- 
sitive. "We  act  whenever  we  do  any  thing  ;  but  we  may  act  without  doing 
any  thing."  —  CrabVs  Synonymes. 

OBS.  2.  —  Active-transitive  verbs  generally  take  the  agent  before  them 
and  the  object  after  them  ;  as,  "  Caesar  conquered  Pompey."  Passive  verbs 
(which  are  derived  from  active-transitive  verbs)  reverse  this  order,  and  de- 
note that  the  subject,  or  nominative,  is  affected  by  the  action;  and  the  agent 
follows,^  being  introduced  by  the  preposition  by  :  as,  "  Pompey  was  conquered 
oy  Caesar." 

OBS.  3.  —  Most  active  verbs  may  be  used  either  transitively  or  intransi- 
tively. Active  verbs  are  transitive  when  there  is  any  person  or  thing  ex- 
pressed or  clearly  implied,  upon  which  the  action  terminates  ;  when  they  do 
not  govern  such  an  object,  they  are  intransitive. 

OBS.  4.  —  Some  verbs  may  be  used  either  in  an  active  or  a  neuter  sense. 
In  the  sentence,  "Here  I  rest,"  rest  is  a  neuter  verb;  but  in  the  sentence, 
"Here  I  rest  my  hopes,"  rest  is  an  active-transitive  verb,  and  governs 
hopes. 

<OES.  5.  —  An  active-intransitive  verb,  followed  by  a  preposition  and  its  ob- 
ject, will  sometimes  admit  of  being  put  into  the  passive  form,  the  object  of 
t'ne  preposition  being  assumed  for  the  nominative,  and  the  preposition  being 
retained  with  the  vero,  as  an  adverb  :  as,  (Active,)  "They  laughed  at  him."  — 
(Passive,)  "He  was  laughed  at." 


ETYMOLOGY. VERBS.  53 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Yerbs  have  modifications  of  four  kinds ;  namely,  Moods, 
Tenses,  Persons,  and  Numbers. 

MOODS. 

Moods  are  different  forms  of  the  verb,  each  of  which 
expresses  the  being,  action,  or  passion,  in  some  particular 
manner. 

There  are  five  moods ;  the  Infinitive,  the  Indicative, 
the  Potential,  the  Subjunctive,  and  the  Imperative. 

The  Infinitive  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb,  which  ex* 
presses  the  being",  action,  or  passion,  in  an  unlimited  man- 
ner, and  without  person  or  number :  as,  To  read,  to  speak. 

The  Indicative  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb,  which 
simply  indicates,  or  declares  a  thing :  as,  I  write  ;  you 
know  :  or  asks  a  question  ;  as,  Do  you  know  ? 

The  Potential  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb,  which  ex- 
presses the  power,  liberty,  possibility,  or  necessity,  of  the 
being,  action,  or  passion  :  as,  I  can  read  ;  we  must  go. 

The  Subjunctive  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb,  which  re- 
presents the  being,  action,  or  passion,  as  conditional,  doubt- 
ful, or  contingent :  as,  "  If  thou  go,  see  that  thou  offend  not." 

The  Imperative  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb,  which 
is  used  in  commanding,  exhorting,  entreating,  or  permit- 
ting: as,  "Depart  thou." — "Be  comforted" — "Forgive 
me." — "  Go  in  peace." 

OBS.  1. — The  infinitive  mood  is  distinguished  by  the  preposition  to, 
which,  with  a  few  exceptions,  immediately  precedes  it.  In  dictionaries, 
to  is  generally  prefixed  to  verbs,  to  distinguish  them  from  other  parts  of 
speech. 

OBS.  2. — The  potential  mood  is  known  by  the  signs  way,  can*,  must,  might, 
could,  would,  and  should.  This  mood  as  well  as  the  indicative  may  be  utJed 
in  asking  a  question  ;  as,  Must  we  go  ? 

OBS.  3. — The  subjunctive  mood  is  always  connected  with  an  other  verb. 
Its  dependence  is  usually  denoted  by  a  conjunction ;  as,  if,  that,  though,  lest, 
unless. 

OBS.  4. — The  indicative  and  potential  moods,  in  all  their  tenses,  may  be 
used  in  the  same  dependent  manner ;  but  this  seems  not  to  be  a  sufficient 
reason  for  considering  them  as  parts  of  the  subjunctive  mood.* 

*  In  regard  to  the  number  and  form  of  the  tenses  which  should  constitute  the 
subjunctive  mood  in  English,  grammarians  are  greatly  at  variance  ;  and  some, 
supposing  its  distinctive  parts  to  be  but  elliptical  forms  of  the  indicative  or  the  po- 
tential, even  deny  the  existence  of  such  a  mood  altogether.  On  this  point,  the 
instructions  published  by  Lindlcy  Murray  are  exceedingly  vague  and  inconsis- 
tent. The  early  editions  of  his  grammar  gave  to  this  mood  sir  te?iscs,  none  of 
which  had  any  of  the  personal  terminations.  His  later  editions  make  ilu-  sub 
junctive  exactly  like  the  indicative,  except  in  the  present  tense,  and  in  tha 
choice  of  auxiliaries  for  the  second-future.  Both  ways  he  goes  too  far.  And 
while  at  last  he  restricts  the  distinctive  form  of  the  subjunctive  to  narrowej 

5 


54  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

TENSES. 

Tenses  are  those  modifications  of  the  verb,  which  distin- 
guish time. 

There  are  six  tenses ;  the  Present,  the  Imperfect,  the 
Perfect,  the  Pluperfect,  the  First-future,  and  the  Second- 
future. 

The  Present  tense  is  that  which  expresses  what  now 
exists  or  is  taking  place  :  as,  "  I  hear  a  noise  ;  somebody 
is  coming" 

The  Imperfect  tense  is  that  which  expresses  what  took 
place,  within  some  period  of  time  fully  past :  as,  "  We  saw 
him  last  week  ;  I  admired  his  behaviour." 

The  Perfect  tense  is  that  which  expresses  what  has 
taken  place,  within  some  period  of  time  not  yet  fully  past : 
as,  "  I  have  seen  him  to-day." 

The  Pluperfect  tense  is  that  which  expresses  what 
had  taken  place  at  some  past  time  mentioned :  as,  "  I 
had  seen  him,  when  I  met  you." 

The  First- future  tense  is  that  which  expresses  what 
will  take  place  hereafter  :  as,  "  I  shall  see  him  again." 

The  Second-future  tense  is  that  which  expresses  what 
will  have  taken  place,  at  some  future  time  mentioned : 
as,  "  I  shall  have  seen  him  by  to-morrow  noon." 

OBS.  1. — The  terms  here  defined  are  the  names  usually  given  to  those 
parts  of  the  verb  to  which  they  are  in  this  work  applied ;  and  though  some 
of  them  are  not  so  strictly  appropriate  as  scientific  names  ought  to  be,  we 
think  it  inexpedient  to  change  them. 

bounds  than  he  ought,  and  argues  against,  If  thou  loved,  If  thou  knew,  &c.  he 
gives  this  mood  not  only  the  last  five  tenses  of  the  indicative,  but  also  all  those 
of  the  potential ;  alleging,  "  that  as  the  indicative  mood  is  converted  into  the 
subjunctive,  by  the  expression  of  a  condition,  motive,  wish,  supposition,  &c. 
being  superadded  to  it,  so  the  potential  mood  may,  in  like  manner,  be  turned 
into  the  subjunctive." — Mur.  Gr.  Oct.  p.  82.  According  to  this,  the  subjunc- 
tive mood  of  every  regular  verb  embraces,  in  one  voice,  as  many  as  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty-eight  different  expressions  ;  and  it  may  happen  that  In  one  sin- 
gle tense  a  verb  shall  have  no  fewer  than  fifteen  different  forms  in  each  person 
and  number.  Six  times  fifteen  are  ninety ;  and  so  many  are  the  several  phrases 
which  now  compose  Murray's  pluperfect  tense  of  the  subjunctive  mood  of  the 
verb  to  strow — a  tense  which  most  grammarians  very  properly  reject  as  need- 
less !  But  this  is  not  all.  The  scheme  not  only  confounds  the  moods,  and 
overwhelms  the  learner  with  its  multiplicity,  but  condemns  as  bad  English 
what  the  author  himself  once  adopted  as  the  imperfect  subjunctive,  "  If  thou 
loved,"  &c.  wherein  he  was  sustained  by  Dr.  Priestley  and  others  of  high  au- 
thority. Dr.  Johnson,  indeed,  made  the  preterit  subjunctive  like  the  indicative"; 
and  this  may  have  induced  the  author  to  change  his  plan,  and  inflect  this  part 
of  the  verb  v/ith  st.  But  Dr.  Alexander  Murray  very  positively  declares  this 
to  be  wrong:  "  When  such  words  as  if,  though,  unless,  except,  whether,  and 
the  like,  are  used  before  verbs,  they  lose  their  terminations  of  est,  eth,  and  .<r, 
hi  those  persons  which  commonly  have  them.  No  speaker  of  good  English, 
expressing  himself  conditionally,  says,  Though  thou  fattest,  or  Though  he/a?/s, 
but,  Though  thou  fall,  and  Though  he  fall ;  nor  Though  thou  earnest  but 
Though,  or  although,  thou  came"— Hist*  Europ.  Lang,  \.  p.  55. 


ETYMOLOGY. VERBS.  55 

OBS.  2. — The  tenses  do  not  all  express  time  with  equal  precision.  Those 
of  the  indicative  mood,  are  the  most  definite.  The  time  expressed  by  th« 
same  tenses  in  the  other  moods,  is  frequently  relative,  and  sometimes  in- 
definite. 

OBS.  3. — The  present  tense,  in  the  indicative  mood,  expresses  general 
truths,  and  customary  actions;  as,  "Vice  produces  misery." — "She  often 
visits  us."  We  also  use  it  in  speaking  of  persons  who  are  dead,  but  whose 
works  remain  ;  as,  "  Seneca  reasons  well." 

OBS.  4. — The  present  tense  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  and  in  the  other 
moods  when  preceded  by  as  soon  as,  after,  before,  till,  or  when,  is  generally 
used  with  reference  to  future  time;  as,  "If  he  ask  a  fish,  will  he  give  him  a 
serpent  1" — Matt.  vii.  10.  "  When  he  arrives,  I  will  send  for  you." 

OBS.  5. — In  animated  narrative,  the  present  tense  is  sometimes  substituted 
(by  the  figure  enallage)  for  the  imperfect;  as,  "As  he  lay  indulging  himself 
in  state,  he  sees  let  down  from  the  cein'ng  a  glittering  sword,  hung  by  a  sin- 
gle hair." — Tr.  of  Cicero.     "  Ulysses  -wakes,  not  knowing  where  he  was." 
Pope. 

OBS.  6. — The  present  infinitive  can  scarcely  be  said  to  express  any  par- 
ticular time.  It  is  usually  dependent  on  an  other  verb,  and,  therefore,  rela- 
tive in  time.  It  may  be  connected  with  any  tense  of  any  mood ;  as,  "  I  in- 
tend to  do  it,  I  intended  to  do  it,  I  have  intended  to  do  it;"  &c.  It  is  often 
used  to  express  futurity;  as,  "  The  time  to  come" — "The  world  to  come." — 
u  Rapture  yet  to  be." 

OBS.  7. — The  imperfect  tense  of  the  indicative  mood,  in  its  simple  form,  is 
called  the  preterit;  as,  loved,  saw,  was. 

OBS..  8. — The  perfect  tense,  like  the  present,  is  sometimes  used  with 
reference  to  future  time;  as,  "He  will  be  fatigued  before  he  Jias  walked  a 
mile." 

OBS.  9. — The  pluperfect  tense  is  often  used  conditionally,  without  a  con- 
junction; as,  "  Had  I  seen  you,  I  should  have  stopped." 

PERSONS  AND  NUMBERS. 

The  person  and  number  of  a  verb,  are  those  modifica- 
tions in  which  it  agrees  with  its  subject  or  nominative. 

In  each  number,  there  are  three  persons  ;  and  in  each 
person,  two  numbers :  thus, 

Singular.  Plural. 

1st  per.  I          love,  1st  per.  We     love, 

2d  per.  Thou  lovest,  2d  per.  You    love, 

3d  per.  He      loves ;  3d  per.  They  love. 

OBS.  1. — Thus  the  verb  in  some  of  its  parts,  varies  its  termination  to 
distinguish  or  agree  with,  the  different  persons  and  numbers.  The  change 
is,  however,  principally  confined  to  the  second  and  third  persons  singular 
of  the  present  tense  of  the  indicative  mood,  and  to  the  auxiliaries  hast 
and  lias  of  the  perfect.  In  the  ancient  biblical  style,  now  used  only  on 
solemn  occasions,  the  second  person  singular  is  distinguished  through  all 
the  tenses  of  the  indicative  and  potential  moods.  And  as  the  use  of  the 
pronoun  thou  is  now  mostly  confined  to  the  sclemn  style,  the  terminations 
of  that  style  are  retained  in  all  our  examples  of  the  conjugation  of  verbs. 
In  the  plural  number,  there  is  no  variation  of  ending,  to  denote  the  dif- 
ferent persons ;  and  the  verb  in  the  three  persons  plural,  is  the  same  as 
in  the  first  person  singular.  As  the  verb  is  always  attended  by  a  noun 
W  a  pronoun,  expressing  the  subject  of  the  affirmation,  no  ambiguity 


56  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

arises  from  the  want  of  particular  terminations  in  the  verb  to  distinguish  the 
different  persons  and  numbers. 

OBS.  *2. — Persons  in  high  stations,  being  usually  surrounded  by  attend- 
ants, it  became,  many  centuries  ago,  a  species  of  court  flattery,  to  address 
individuals  of  this  class,  in  the  plural  number.  And  the  practice  extended, 
in  time,  to  all  ranks  of  society :  so  that,  at  present  the  customary  mode 
of  familiar  as  well  as  complimentary  address,  is  altogether  plural;  both 
the  vrrb  and  the  pronoun  being  used  iu  that  form.  This  practice,  which 
confounds  one  of  the  most  important  distinctions  of  the  language,  affords 
a  striking  instance  of  the  power  of  fashion.  The  society  of  Friends  or 
Quakers,  however,  continue  to  employ  the  singular  number  in  familiar 
discourse;  and  custom,  which  has  now  destroyed  the  compliment  of  the 
plural,  has  placed  the  appropriate  form,  (at  least  as  regards  them,)  on  an 
equality  with  the  plural  in  point  of  respect.  The  singular  is  universally 
employed  in  reference  to  the  Supreme  Being;  and  is  generally  preferred  in 
poetry.  It  is  the  language  of  Scripture,  and  is  consistently  retained  in  all 
our  grammars. 

OBS.  3. — As  most  of  the  peculiar  terminations  by  which  the  second  per- 
son singular  of  verbs  is  properly  distinguished  in  the  solemn  style,  are  not 
only  difficult  of  utterance,  but  are  quaint  and  formal  in  conversation ;  the 
preterits  and  auxiliaries  are  seldom  varied  in  familiar  discourse,  and  the 
present  is  generally  simplified  by  contraction.  A  distinction  between  the 
solemn  and  the  familiar  style,  has  long  been  admitted,  in  the  pronunciation 
of  the  termination  ed,  and  in  the  ending  of  the  verb  in  the  third  person  sin- 
gular ;  and  it  is  evidently  according  to  good  taste  and  the  best  usage,  to  ad- 
mit such  a  distinction  in  the  second  person  singular.  In  the  familiar  use  of 
the  second  person  singular,  the  verb  is  usually  varied  only  in  the  present 
tense  of  the  indicative  mood,  and  in  the  auxiliary  hast  of  the  perfect.  This 
method  of  varying  the  verb  renders  the  second  person  singular  analogous  to 
the  third,  and  accords  with  the  practice  of  the  most  intelligent  of  those  who 
retain  the  common  use  of  this  distinctive  and  consistent  mode  of  address. 
It  disencumbers  their  familiar  dialect  of  a  multitude  of  harsh  and  useless  ter- 
minations, which  serve  only,  when  uttered,  to  give  an  uncouth  prominency 
to  words  not  often  emphatic;  and,  without  impairing  the  strength  or  per- 
spicuity of  the  language,  increases  its  harmony,  and  reduces  the  form  of  the 
vi  rb  in  the  second  person  singular  nearly  to  the  same  simplicity  as  in  the 
other  persons  and  numbers.* 


*  The  writings  of  the  Friends  being  mostly  of  a  grave  cast,  afford  but  few 
examples  of  their  customary  mode  of  forming  the  verb  in  connexion  with  the 
pronoun  thou,  in  familiar  discourse.  The  following  may  serve  to  illustrate  it: 
"  To  devote  all  thou  had  to  his  service" — "  If  thou  Should  come" — "  What  thou 
said" — "Thou  kindly  contributed" — "The  Epistle  which  thou  sent  me" — 
"Thou  would  perhaps  allow" — "If  thou  submitted" — "Since  thou  left" — 
"  Should  thou  act " — "  Thou  may  be  ready  " — "  That  thou  had  met " — "  That 
thou  had  intimated" — "Before  thou  puts"  [putst] — "What  thou  meets" 
[raeetst] — "  If  thou  had  made" — "  I  observed  thou  was" — "  That  thou  might 
put  thy  trust" — "Thou  had  been  at  my  house."  J.  KENDALL.  "Thou 
may  be  plundered" — "That  thou  may  feel" — "Though  thou  waited  long, 
And  sought  him" — "I  hope  thou  will  bear  my  style" — "  Thou  also  knows  " 
[knovvst] — "  Thou  grew  up  " — "  I  wish  thou  would  yet  take  my  counsel."  S. 
CRISP.  "  Thou  manifested  thy  tender  regard,  stretched  forth  thy  delivering 
hand,  and  fed  and  sustained  us."  S.  FO'fHERGILL.  The  writer  has  met 
with  thousands  that  used  the  second  person  singular  in  conversation,  but  never 
with  one  that  employed,  on  ordinary  occasions,  all  the  regular  endings  of  the 
Boleran  style.  The  simplification  of  the  second  person  singular,  wliich^  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent,  is  everywhere  adopted  by  the  Friends,  and  which  ia 
here  defined  and  explained,  removes  from  each  verb  eighteen  of  these  peculiar 
terminations ;  and,  (if  the  number  of  English  verbs  be,  as  stated  by  several  gram- 
marians, 8000,)  disburdens  their  familiar  dialeet  of  144,000  of  thes«  <*wVward 


ETYMOLOGY.  -  VERBS.  57 

Where  the  verb  is  varied,  the  second  person  singular  is  regu 
Jarly  formed  by  adding  st  or  est  to  the  first  person  ;  and  the 
third  person  singular,  in  like  manner,  by  adding  s  or  es  ;  as,  I 
seC)  thou  seest,  he  sees  ;  I  give,  tJ  )u  giuest,  he  gives  ;  I  go,  thou 
goest,  he  goes  ;  I  fly,  thou  fliest  ,  he  flies  ;  1  vex,  thou  vexest,  he 
I  fose,  thou  losest,  he 


OBS.  1.  —  In  the  solemn  style,  (except  in  Poetry,  which  usually  contracts* 
these  forms,)  the  second  person  singular  of  the  present  indicative,  and  thatol 

and  useless  appendages.  This  simplification  is  supported  by  usage  as  exten- 
sive as  the  familiar  use  of  the  pronoun  thou  ;  and  is  also  in  accordance  with 
the  canons  of  criticism.  "  All  words  and  phrases  wyhich  are  remarkably  harsh 
and  unharmonious,  and  not  absolutely  necessary,  should  be  rejected."  —  Camp- 
bell's  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,  Sec.  2,  Canon  First.  With  the  subject  of  this 
note,  those  who  put  you  for  thou,  can  have  no  concern  ;  and  many  may  think 
it  unworthy  of  notice,  because  Murray  has  said  nothing  about  it.  We  write 
not  for  or  against  any  sect,  or  any  man  ;  but  to  teach  all  who  desire  to  know 
the  grammar  of  our  tongue.  And  who  is  he  that  will  pretend  that  the  solemn 
style  of  the  Bible  may  be  used  in  familiar  discourse,  without  a  mouthing  affec- 
tation ?  In  preaching,  the  ancient  terminations  of  est  for  the  second  person 
singular  and  eth  for  the  third,  as  well  as  ed  pronounced  as  a  separate  syllable 
for  the  preterit,  are  admitted  to  be  in  better  taste  than  the  smoother  forms  of 
the  familiar  style  ;  because  the  latter,  though  now  frequently  heard  in  relig- 
ious assemblies,  are  not  so  well  suited  to  the  dignity  and  gravity  of  a  sermon 
or  a  prayer.  In  grave  poetry  also,  especially  when  it  treats  of  scriptural  sub- 
jects, to  which  you  put  for  thou  is  obviously  unsuitable,  the  personal  termina- 
tions of  the  verb,  which  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  present  day  have  usual- 
ly been  contracted  and  often  omitted  by  the  poets,  ought  perhaps  still  to  be  in- 
sisted on,  agreeably  to  the  notion  of  our  tuneless  critics.  The  critical  objec- 
tion to  their  elision,  however,  can  have  no  very  firm  foundation  while  it  is  ad- 
mitted by  the  objectors  themselves,  that,  "  Writers  generally  have  recourse  to 
this  mode  of  expression,  that  they  may  avoid  harsh  terminations."  —  Irving's  EL 
Eng.  Composition,  p.  12.  But  if  writers  of  good  authority,  such  as  Pope,  Swift, 
and  Pollok,  have  sometimes  had  recourse  to  this  method  of  simplifying  the  verb, 
ev^n  in  the  solemn  style,  the  elision  may,  with  tenfold  stronger  reason,  be  ad- 
mitted in  familiar  writing  or  discourse,  on  the  authority  of  general  custom 
among  those  who  choose  to  employ  the  pronoun  thou  in  conversation. 

Some  of  the  Friends  (perhaps  from  an  idea  that  it  is  less  formal)  misemploy 
thee  for  thou,  and  often  join  it  to  the  third  person  of  the  verb  in  stead  of  the 
second.  Such  expressions  as,  tnee  does,  thee  is,  thee  has,  thee  thinks,  &c.  are 
double  solecisms  ;  they  set  all  grammar  at  defiance.  Many  persons  who  are 
not  ignorant  of  grammar,  and  who  employ  the  pronoun  aright,  sometimes  im- 
properly sacrifice  concord  to  a  slight  improvement  in  sound,  and  give  to  the 
verb  the  ending  of  the  third  person  for  that  of  the  second.  Three  instances 
of  this  occur  in  the  examples  quoted  in  the  preceding  paragraph.  See  also 
the  following,  and  many  more,  in  the  works  of  the  poet  Burns  ;  who  says  of 
himself,  "  Though  it  cost  the  schoolmaster  some  thrashings,  I  made  an  excel- 
lent English  scholar  ;  and,  by  the  time  I  was  tenor  eleven  years  of  age,  I  was 
a  critic  in  substantives,  verbs,  and  particles:"  —  "But  when  thou  pours"  — 
"  There  thou  shines  chief"—"  Thou  clears  the  head"  —  "  Thou  strings  the 
nerves"  —  "  Thou  .brightens  black  despair"  —  "Thou  comes"  —  "  Thou  travel* 
far"  —  "  Thou  paints"  —  "  Unseen  thou  lurks"  —  "  O  thou  pale  orb  that  silent 
shines."  Tnis  mode  of  simplifying  the  verb  confounds  the  persons  ;  and  as  it 
has  little  advantage  in  sound,  over  the  regular  contracted  form  of  the  second 
person,  it  ought  to  be  avoided.  It  is  too  frequently  used  by  the  poets. 

*  The  second  person  singular  may  be  contracted,  whenever  the  verb  ends 
m  a  sound  which  will  unite  with  that  of  st.  The  poets  generally  employ  the 
contracted  forms,  but  they  seem  not  to  have  adopted  a  uniform  and  consistent 
method  of  writing  them.  Some  insert  the  apostrophe,  and,  after  a  single  vow- 
el, double  the  final  consonant  before  st  ;  as,  hold'st,  bidd'st,  said'st,  ledd'st, 
may'st,  might'  st,  &c.  :  others  add  st  .mly,  and  form  permanent  contractions  ; 


58  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

the  irregular  preterits,*  commonly  end  in  est,  pronounced  as  a  separate 
syllable.  But  as  the  termination  ed,  in  solemn  discourse,  constitutes  a  sylla- 
ble, the  regular  preterits  form  the  second  person  singular,  by  adding  st,  vvith- 
out  further  increase  of  syllables  ;  as,  loved,  lovcdst — not  lovedest.  Dost  and 
Jtast,  and  the  irregular  preterits  wast,  didst,  and  hadst,  are  permanently  con- 
tracted. The  auxiliaries  shall  and  will,  change  the  final  /  to  t.  To  the 
auxiliaries  may,  can,  might,  could,  would,  and  should,  the  termination  est  was 
formerly  added ;  but  they  are  now  generally  written  with  st  only,  and  pro- 
nounced as  monosyllables,  even  in  solemn  discourse. 

OBS.  2. — The  third  person  singular  was  anciently  formed  by  adding  th  t« 
verbs  ending  in  e,  and  eth  to  all  others.  This  method  of  forming  the  third 
person  singular,  almost  always  adds  a  syllable  to  the  verb.  It  is  now  con- 
fined to  the  solemn  style,  and  is  little  used.  Doth,  hath,  and  saith,  are  con- 
tractions of  verbs  thus  formed. 

OBS.  3. — When  the  second  person  singular  is  employed  in  familiar  dis- 
course, it  is  usually  formed  in  a  manner  strictly  analogous  to  that,  which  is 
now  adopted  in  the  third  person  singular.  When  the  verb  ends  in  a  sound 
which  will  unite  with  that  of  st  or  s,  the  second  person  singular  is  formed 
by  adding  st  only,  and  the  third,  by  adding  s  only ;  and  the  number  of  syl- 
lables is  not  increased  :  as,  I  read,  thoureadst,  he  reads;  I  know,  thou  knowst, 
he  knows ;  I  take,  thou  takest,  he  takes.  For  when  the  verb  ends  in  mute 
e,  no  termination  renders  this  e  vocal  in  the  familiar  style,  if  a  synseresis  can 
take  place. 

OBS.  4. — But  when  the  verb  ends  in  a  sound  which  will  not  unite  with 
that  of  st  ©r  s,  st  and  s  are  added  to  final  e,  and  est  and  es  to  other  termina- 
tions; and  the  verb  acquires  an  additional  syllable:  as,  I  trace,  thou  tracest, 
he  traces  ;  I  pass,  thou  passest,  he  passes ;  I  Jix,  thou  fixest,  hejixes.  But 
verbs  ending  in  o  or  y  preceded  by  a  consonant,  do  not  exactly  follow  this 
rule :  in  these,  y  is  changed  into  i;  and  to  both  o  and  i,  est  and  esare  added 

as,  holdst,  bidst,  saidst,  ledst,  mayst,  mightst,  &c.  Some  retain  the  vowel  in 
the  termination  of  certain  words,  and  suppress  a  preceding  one  ;  as,  quick*  nest, 
happ'nest,  scatt'rest,  slumtfrest,  slumb'redst:  others  contract  the  teimination 
of  such  words,  and  insert  the  apostrophe  ;  as,  yuicken'st,  happen'st,  scatter 'st, 
slumber'' st,  slumber'dst.  The  nature  of  our  language,  the  accent  and  pronun- 
ciation of  it,  incline  us  to  contract  even  all  our  regular  verbs  ;  so  as  to  avoid, 
if  possible,  an  increase  of  syllables  in  the  inflection  of  them.  Accordingly, 
several  terminations  which  formerly  constituted  distinct  syllables,  have  been 
either  wholly  dropped,  or  blended  with  the  final  syllables  of  the  verbs  to  which 
they  are  added.  Thus  the  plural  termination  en  has  become  entirely  obsolete ; 
th  or  eth  is  no  longer  in  common  use  ;  ed  is  contracted  in  pronunciation  ;  the 
ancient  ys  or  is,  of  the  third  person  singular,  is  changed  to  s  or  es,  and  is  usual- 
ly added  without  increase  of  syllables  ;  and  st  or  est  has,  in  part,  adopted  the 
analogy.  So  that  the  proper  mode  of  forming  these  contractions  of  the  second 
person  singular,  seems  to  be,  to  add  st  only,  and  to  insert  the  apostrophe, 
when  a  vowel  is  suppressed  from  the  verb  to  which  this  termination  is  added  ; 
as,  thinkst,  sayst,  bidst,  lov'st,  lov'dst,  slumberst,  slumber'dst. 

*  Some  grammarians  say,  that,  whenever  the  preterit  is  like  the  present,  it 
should  take  edst  for  the  second  person  singular.  This  rule  gives  us  such 
words  as  cast-edst,  cost-edst,  bid-dedst,  burst-edst,  cut-tedst,  liit-tedst,  let-tedst, 
put-tedst,  hurt-edst,  rid-dedst,  shed-dedst,  &c.  The  few  examples  which  may 
be  adduced  from  ancient  writings,  in  support  of  this  rule,  are  undoubtedly 
formed  in  the  usual  manner  from  regular  preterits  now  obsolete  ;  and  if  this 
were  not  the  case,  no  person  of  taste  could  think  of  employing  derivatives  so 
uncouth.  Dr.  Johnson  has  justly  remarked,  that  "  the  chief  defect  of  our  lan- 
guage, is  ruggedness  and  asperity."  And  this  defect  is  peculiarly  obvious, 
when  even  the  regular  termination  of  the  second  person  singular  is  added  to 
our  preterits.  Accordingly  we  find  numerous  instances  among  the  poets,  both 
ancient  and  modern,  in  which  that  termination  is  omitted. — [See  Percy's  Re- 
Uques  of  Ancient  Poetry,  everywhere.] 


ETYMOLOGY. VERBS.  59 

without  increase  of  syllables:  as,  I  go,  thaugoest,  he  goes;  I  undo,  thou  tin- 
doe*',*  he  undoes ;  Ijtfy,  thoujfti<«f.  hejlies;  I  pi/y,  mou  pitiest,  he  pities. 

OBS.  5. — The  formation  of  th  third  person  singular  of  verbs,  is  precisely 
the  same  as  that  of  the  plural  number  of  nouns. 

OBS.  6. — The  auxiliaries  do  dost,  does,  [pronounced  doo,  dust,  duz,]— 
am,  art,  is, — Jiave,  hast,  has, — being  also  in  frequent  use  as  principal  verbs  of 
(he  present  tense,  retain  their  peculiar  form  when  joined  to  other  verbs.  The 
other  auxiliaries  are  not  varied,  except  in  the  solemn  style. 

OBS.  7. — The  only  regular  terminations  that  are  added  to  verbs,  are 
ing,  d  or  ed,  st  or  est,  s  or  es,  th  or  eth.  Ing,  and  th  or  eth,  always  ado 
a  syllable  to  the  verb;  except  in  doth,  hath,  saith.  The  rest,  whenever 
their  sound  will  unite  with  that  of  the  final  syllable  of  the  verb,  are  add- 
ed without  increasing  the  number  of  syllables ;  otherwise,  they  are  sepa- 
rately pronounced.  In  solemn  discourse,  however,  ed  and  tst  are,  by  most 
speakers,  uttered  distinctly  in  all  cases;  except  sometimes,  when  a  vowe. 
precedes. 

CONJUGATjON  OP  VERBS. 

The  conjugation  of  a  verb  is  a  regular  arrangement  of 
its  moods,  tenses,  persons,  numbers,  and  participles. 

OBS. — The  moods  and  tenses  are  formed  partly  by  inflections,  or  changes 
made  in  the  verb  itself,  and  partly  oy  the  combination  of  the  verb  or  its  par- 
liciple,  with  a  few  short  verbs  caiied  auxiliaries,  or  helping  verbs, 

There  are  four  PRINCIPAL  PARTS  in  the  conjugation 
of  every  simple  and  complete  verb  ;  namely,  the  Present, 
the  Preterit,  the  Imperfect  Participle,  and  the  Perfect 
Participle.  A  verb  which  wants  any  of  these  parts,  is  call- 
ed defective. 

OBS. — The  present  is  radically  the  same  in  all  the  moods,  and  is  the  part 
from  which  all  the  rest  are  formed.  The  present  infinitive  is  the  root,  or 
Ijjmplcstform,  of  the  verb.  The  preteri  and  the  perfect  participle  are  regu- 
arly  formed  by  adding  d  or  ed,  and  the  imperfect  participle  by  adding  ing, 
to  the  present. 

An  auxiliary  is  a  short  verb  prefixed  to  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal parts  of  an  other  verb,  to  express  some  particular 
mode  and  time  of  the  being,  action,  or  passion.  The  aux- 
iliaries are  do,  be,  have,  shall,  will,  may,  can,  and  must, 
with  their  variations. 

OBS.  1. — Do,  be,  and  have,  being  also  principal  verbs,  are  complete:  but 
the  participles  of  do  and  have,  are  not  used  as  auxiliaries ;  unless  having, 
which  forms  the  compound  participle,  may  be  considered  as  such.  The 
other  auxiliaries  have  no  participles. 

OBS.  2. — English  verbs  are  principally  conjugated  by  means  of  auxili- 
aries ;  the  only  tenses  which  can  be  formed  by  the  simple  verb,  being  the 
present  and  the  imperfect ;  as,  I  love,  I  loved.  And  even  here  an  auxiliary 


*  The  second  person  singular  of  the  simple  verb  do,  is  now  usually  written 
dost,  and  read  dust ;  being  contracted  in  orthography,  as  well  as  pronuncia- 
tion. And  perhaps  the  compounds  may  follow  ;  as,  Thou  undost,  outdost,  mis* 
fast,  overdost,  &c.  But  exceptions  to  exceptions  are  puzzling,  even  when 
U*y  conform  to  the  general  rul«. 


60  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

is  usually  preferred  in  questions  and  negations ;  as,  Do  you  lore  ?  You  do 
not  love.  All  the  other  tenses,  even  in  their  simplest  form,  are  compounds. 

OBS.  3. — The  form  of  conjugating  the  active  verb  is  often  called  the  Ac* 
iive  Voice ;  and  that  of  the  passive  verb,  the  Passive  Voice.  These  terms 
are  borrowed  from  the  Latin  and  Greek  grammars,  and  are  of  little  or  no 
use  in  English. 

OBS.  4. — English  verbs  having  few  inflections,  it  is  convenient  to  insert 
in  the  conjugations  the  preposition  to,  to  mark  the  infinitive;  pronouns,  to 
distinguish  the  persons  and  numbers;  the  conjunction  if,  to  denote  the  sub- 
junctive; and  the  adverb  not,  to  show  the  form  of  negation.  With  these 
additions,  a  verb  may  be  conjugated  in  four  ways : 

1.  Affirmatively ;  as,  I  write,  I  do  write,  or  I  am  writing. 

2.  Negatively ;  as,  I  write  not,  I  do  not  write,  or,  I  am  not  writing. 

3.  Interrogatively ;  as,  Write  11  Do  1  write  ?  or,  Am  I  writing  ? 

4.  Interrogatively  and  negatively;  as,  Write  I  not!  Do  I  not  write?  or 

Am  I  not  writing  ? 

I.    SIMPLE  FORM,  ACTIVE  OR  NEUTER. 

The  simplest  form  of  an  English  conjugation,  is  that 
which  makes  the  present  and  imperfect  tenses  without  aux- 
iliaries ;  but,  even  in  these,  auxiliaries  are  required  for  the 
potential  mood,  and  are  often  preferred  for  the  indicative. 

FIRST  EXAMPLE. 

The  regular  active  verb  LOVE^  conjugated  affirmativlyL 
Principal  Parts. 

Present,          Preterit.       Imper.  Participle.        Perfect  Participle. 
Love,  Loved.  Loving.  Loved. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

The  infinitive  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb,  which  expresses  the  being, 
action,  or  passion,  in  an  unlimited  manner,  and  without  person  or  number?" 
It  is  used  only  in  the  present  and  perfect  tenses. 

Present  Tense. 

This  tense  is  the  root,  or  radical  verb ;  and  is  usually  preceded  by  the 
preposition  to,  which  shows  its  relation  to  some  other  word:  thus, 

To  Love. 

Perfect  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliary  have  to  the  perfect  participle,  and  ia 
usually  preceded  by  the  preposition  to :  thus, 

To  have  loved. 
INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

The  indicative  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb,  which  simply  indicates  or 
declares  a  tiling,  or  asks  a  question.  It  is  used  in  all  the  tenses. 

Present  Tense. 

The  present  indicative,  in  its  simple  form,  is  essentially  the  same  as  tho 
present  infinitive,  or  radical  verb ;  except  that  the  verb  be  has  am  in  the 
indicative. 


ETYMOLOGY. VERBS.  61 

1.  The  simple  form  of  the  present  tense  is  varied  thus : 

Singular.  Plural. 

1st  per.  I          love,  1st  per.  We  love, 

2d  per.  Thou  lovest,  2d  per.  You  love, 

3d  per.  He      loves ;  3d  per.  They  love. 

2.  This  tense  may  also  be  formed  by  prefixing  the  auxiliary 
do  to  the  verb  :  thus, 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I          do     love,  1.  We    do  love, 

2.  Thou  dost  love,  2.  You  do  love, 

3.  He      does  love  ;  3.  They  do  love. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

This  tense,  in  its  simple  form,  is  the  preterit ;  which,  in  all  regular  verbs, 
adds  d  or  ed  to  the  present,  but  in  others  is  formed  variously. 

1.  The  simple  form  of  the  imperfect  tense  is  varied  thus: 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I          loved,  1.  We     loved, 

2  Thou  lovedst,  2.  You   loved, 

3  He      loved ;  3.  They  loved. 

2.  This  tense  may  also  be  formed  by  prefixing  the  auxiliary 
did  to  the  present :  thus, 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I          did    love,  1.  We     did  love, 

2.  Thou  didst  love,  2.  You   did  love, 
<B.  He      did    love ;  3.  They  did  love. 

OBS. — In  a  familiar  question  or  negation,  the  auxiliary  form  is  preferable 
to  the  simple.  But  in  the  solemn  or  the  poetic  style,  the  simple  form  is 
more  dignified  and  graceful:  as,  "  Understandcst  thou  what  thou  readestl" 
— "  Of  whom  spcakdh  the  prophet  this  T — Acts,  viii.  30, 34.  "  What !  heard 
ye  not  of  lowland  warT' — Scott. 

Perfect  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliary  Jiave  to  the  perfect  participle :  thus, 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I          have  loved,  1.  We    have  loved, 

2.  Thou  hast  loved,  2.  You  have  loved, 

3.  He      has    loved ;  3.  They  have  loved. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliary  had  to  the  perfect  participle :  thus, 
Singular.  PJural. 

1.  I         had     loved,  1.  We    had  loved, 

2.  Thou  hadst  loved,  2.  You  had  loved, 
3    He      had     loved ;  3.  They  had  loved 


62  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

First-future  Tense. 
This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliary  shall  or  will  to  the  present :  Mius, 

1 .  Simply  to  express  a  future  action  or  event : 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I          vshall  love,  1.  We     shall  love, 

2.  Thou  wilt    love,  2.  You   will   love, 

3.  He      will    love ;  3.  They  will  love. 

2.  To  express  a  promise,  volition,  command,  or  threat : 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I          will   love,  1.  We    will   love, 

2.  Thou  shalt  love,  2.  You   shall  love, 

3.  He      shall  love  ;  3.  They  shall  love. 

OBS. — In  interrogative  sentences,  the  meaning  of  these  auxiliaries  is  re- 
versed. When  preceded  by  a  conjunction  implying  condition  or  uncertain- 
ty, their  import  is  somewhat  varied. 

Second-future  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliaries  shad  have  ox  will  have  to  the  perfect  par- 
ticiple: thus, 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I          shall  have  loved,  1.  We     shall  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  wilt   have  loved,  2.  You   will   have  loved, 

3.  He      will  have  loved ;  3.  They  will   have  loved. 

OBS. — The  auxiliary  shall  may  also  be  used  in  the  second  and  third  per- 
sons of  this  tense,  when  preceded  by  a  conjunction  expressing  condition  or 
contingency  ;  as,  "  If  he  shall  have  finished  his  work  when  I  return." 

POTENTIAL  MOOD.  • 

The  potential  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb,  which  expresses  the  power 
liberty,  possibility,  or  necessity,  of  the  being,  action,  or  passion.  It  is  usett 
in  the  first  four  tenses. 

Present  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliary  may,  can,  or  must,  to'  the  radical  verb: 
thus, 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I          may    love,  1.  We     may  love, 

2.  Thou  mayst  love,  2.  You   may  love, 

3.  He      may    love ;  3.  They  may  love. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliary  might,  could,  would,  or  should,  to  th€ 
radical  verb :  thus, 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         might    love,  1.  We     might  love, 

2.  Thou  mightst  love,  2.  You   might  love, 

3.  He      might    love  ;  3.  They  might  love. 


ETYMOLOGY. VERBS.  63 

Perfect  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliaries,  may  have,  can  have,  or  must  have,  to  the 
perfect  participle :  thus, 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         may    have  loved,  1.  We     may  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  loved,  2.  You    may  have  loved, 

3.  He      may    have  loved ;  3.  They  may  have  loved. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliaries,  might  have,  could  have,  would  have,  or 
should  have,  to  the  perfect  participle :  thus, 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         might    have  loved,  1.  We     might  have  loved. 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  loved,  2.  You    might  have  loved, 

3.  He      might    have  loved ;  3.  They  might  have  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

The  subjunctive  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb,  which  represents  the  be- 
ing, action,  or  passion,  as  conditional,  doubtful,  or  contingent.  This  mood 
is  generally  preceded  by  a  conjunction ;  as,  if,  that,  though,  kst,  unless,  &c. 
It  does  not  vary  its  termination,  in  the  different  persons.  It  is  used  in  the 
present,  and  sometimes  in  the  imperfect  tense ;  rarely  in  any  other.  As  thLs 
mood  can  be  used  only  in  a  dependent  clause,  the  time  implied  in  its  tenses 
is  always  relative,  and  generally  indefinite. 

Present  Tense. 

This  tense  is  generally  used  to  express  some  condition  on  which  a  future 
action  or  event  is  affirmed.  It  is  therefore  considered  by  some  grammarians, 
as  an  elliptical  form  of  the  future. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I        love,  1.  If  we    love, 

2.  If  thou  love,  2.  If  you  love, 

3.  If  he     love  ;  3.  If  they  love. 

OBS. — In  this  tense  the  auxiliary  do  is  sometimes  employed ;  as,  "  If 
thou  do  prosper  my  way." — Gen.  xxiv.  42.  "If  he  do  not  utter  it." — 
Lev.  v.  1. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

This  tense,  as  well  as  the  imperfect  of  the  potential  mood,  with  which 
it  is  frequently  connected,  is  properly  an  aorist,  or  indefinite  tense;  and 
it  may  refer  to  time  past,  present,  or  future :  as,  "  If  therefore  perfection 
were  by  the  Levitical  priesthood,  what  further  need  was  there,"  &c. — 
Hcb.  vii.  11.  "  If  the  whole  body  were  an  eye,  where  were  the  hearing  T' 
—1  Cor.  xii.  17.  "  If  it  were  possible,  they  sliaU  deceive  the  very  elect.  — 
Matt.  xxiv.  24. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I        loved,  1.  If  we    loved, 

2.  If  thou  loved,  2.  If  you   loved, 

3.  If  he     loved;  3.  If  they  loved. 


64  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR, 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

The  imperative  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb,  whjch  is  used  in  command- 
ing, exhorting,  entreating,  or  permitting.  It  is  commonly  used  only  in  the 
second  person  of  the  present  tense. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.     2.  Love  [thou ,]  or  Do  thou  love ; 

Plural.         2.  Love  [ye  or  you,]       or  Do  you  love. 

OBS. — In  the  Greek  language,  which  has  three  numbers,  the  impera- 
tive mood  is  used  in  the  second  and  third  persons  of  them  all ;  and  has 
also  several  different  tenses,  some  of  which  cannot  be  clearly  rendered  in 
English.  In  Latin  this  mood  has  a  distinct  form  for  the  third  person  both 
sir^ular  and  plural.  In  Italian,  Spanish,  and  French,  the  first  person 
plural  is  also  given  it.  Imitations  of  some  of  these  forms  are  occasional- 
ly employed  in  English,  particularly  by  the  poets.  Such  imitations  must 
be  referred  to  this  mood,  unless  by  ellipsis  and  transposition  we  make 
them  out  to  be  something  else.  The  following-  are  examples :  "  Blessed 
be  he  that  blesseth  thee," — Gen.  xxvii.  29.  "Thy  kingdom  come" — Matt. 
vi.  10. 

"  Fall  he  that  must,  beneath  his  rival's  arms, 
And  live  the  rest,  secure  of  future  harms." — Pope. 

"  My  soul,  turn  from  them — turn  we  to  survey,"  &c. — Goldsmith. 

PARTICIPLES. 

1.   The  Imperfect.         2.   The  Perfect.         3.   The  Pluperfect. 
Loving.  Loved.  Having  loved. 

SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  FIRST  EXAMPLE. 

First  Person  Singular. 

IND.  I  love,  I  loved,  I  have  loved,  I  had  loved,  I  shall  love, 
I  shall  have  loved.  POT.  I  may  love,  I  might  love,  I  may  have 
loved,  I  might  have  loved.  SUBJ.  If  I  love,  If  I  loved.  • 

Second  Person  Singular. 

IND.  Thou  lovest,  Thou  lovedst,  Thou  hast  loved,  Thou 
hadst  loved,  Thou  wilt  love,  Thou  wilt  have  loved.  POT. 
Thou  mayst  love,  Thou  mightst  love,  Thou  mayst  have  loved, 
Thou  mightst  have  loved.  SUBJ.  If  thou  love,  If  thou  loved 
IMP.  Love  [thou,]  or  Do  thou  love. 

Third  Person  Singular. 

IND.  He  loves,  He  loved.  He  has  loved,  He  had  loved,  He 
will  love,  He  will  have  loved.  POT.  He  may  love,  He  might 
love,  He  may  have  loved,  He  might  have  loved.  SUBJ.  If  he 
love,  If  he  loved. 

First  Person  Plural. 

IND.  We  love,  We  loved,  We  have  loved,  We  had  loved, 
We  shall  love,  We  shall  have  loved.  POT.  We  may  love, 
We  might  love,  We  may  have  loved,  We  might  have  loved 
STJBJ.  If  wo  lovo,  If  we  loved. 


ETYMOLOGY. VEEBS. 


65 


Second  Person  Plural. 

IND.  You  love,  You  loved,  You  have  loved,  You  had  loved, 
You  will  love,  You  will  have  loved.  POT.  You  may  love, 
You  might  love,  You  may  have  loved,  You  might  have  loved. 
SUBJ.  If  you  love,  If  you  loved.  IMP.  Love  [ye  or  you,]  or 
Do  you  love. 

Third  Person  Plural 

IND.  They  love,  They  loved,  They  have  loved,  They  had 
loved,  They  will  love,  They  will  have  loved.  POT.  They  may 
love,  They  might  love,  They  may  have  loved,  They  might  have 
loved.  SUBJ.  If  they  love,  If  they  loved. 

OBS. — In  the  familiar  style,  the  second  person  singular  of  this  verb,  is 
usually  formed  thus :  IND.  Thou  lov'st,  Thou  loved,  Tnou  hast  loved,  Thou 
had  loved,  Thou  will  love,  Thou  will  have  loved.  POT.  Thou  may  love, 
Thou  might  love,  Thou  may  have  loved,  Thou  might  have  loved.  SUBJ.  If 
thou  love,  If  thou  loved.  IMP.  Love  [thou,]  or  Do  thou  love. 

SECOND  EXAMPLE. 

The  irregular  active  verb  SEE,  conjugated  affirmatively. 
Principal  Parts. 

Present.         Preterit.         Imp.  Participle.         Perf.  Participle. 
Saw.  Seeing.  Seen. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 
Present  Tense. 

To  see. 
Perfect  Tense. 
To  have  seen. 


See. 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


Present  Tense. 
Singular. 

1.  I          see,  1. 

2.  Thou  seest,  2. 

3.  He      sees;  3. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Sirigular. 

1.  I          saw,  1. 

2.  Thou  sawest,  2. 

3.  He      saw;  3. 

Perfect  Tense. 
Singular. 

1.  I         have  seen,  1. 

2.  Thou  hast  seen,  2. 

3.  He      has  seen  •  3. 


Plural. 
We     see, 
You   see, 
They  see, 

Plural 
We     saw, 
You    saw, 
They  saw. 

Plural 

We  have  seen. 
You  have  seen, 
They  have  seen. 


66  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 
Singular,  Plural. 

1.  I         had    seen,  1.  We     had  seen, 

2.  Thou  hadst  seen,  2.  You    had  seen, 

3.  He      had    seen ;  3.  They  had  seen. 

First-future  Tense. 
Si?igular.  Plural 

1.  I         shall  see,  1.  We     shall  see, 

2.  Thou  wilt  see,  2.  You   will   see, 

3.  He      will  see;  3.  They  will  see. 

Second-future  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1    I         shall  have  seen,  1.  We     shall  have  seen, 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  seen,  2.  You   will  have  seen, 

3.  He      will  have  seen ;  3.  They  will  have  seen. 

POTENTIAL  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         may    see,  1.  We     may  see, 

2.  Thou  mayst  see,  2.  You   may  see, 

3.  He      may    see ;  3.  They  may  see. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         might    see,  1.  We     might  see, 

2.  Thou  mightst  see,  2.  You   might  see, 
1.  He      might    see  ;  1.  They  might  see. 

Perfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         may    have  seen,          1.  We     may  have  seen, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  seen,          2.  You   may  have  seen, 

3.  He      may    have  seen ;         3.  They  may  have  seen. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         might    have  seen,       1.  We     might  have  seen, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  seen,       2.  You    might  have  seen, 
2.  He      might    have  seen ;       3.  They  might  have  seen, 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
+  Singular.  Plural 

1.  If  I        see,  1.  If  we    see, 

2.  Ifthousee,  2.  If  you  see, 

3.  If  he     see;  3.  If  they  see. 


ETYMOLOGY. VERBS.  67 

Imperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I        saw,                            1.  If  we    saw, 

2.  If  thou  saw,                           2.  If  you  saw, 

3.  If  he     saw ;                          3.  If  they  saw. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  2.  See  [thou,]  or  Do  thou  see ; 

Plural.      2.  See  [ye  or  you,]  or  Do  you  see, 

PARTICIPLES. 

1.  The  Imperfect.        2.   The  Perfect.         3.  The  Pluperfect. 

Seeing.  Seen.  Having  seen. 

OBS. — In  the  familiar  style,  the  second  person  singular  of  this  verb,  is 
usually  formed  thus :  IND.  Thou  seest,  Thou  saw,  Thou  hast  seen,  Thou  had 
seen,  Thou  will  see,  Thou  will  have  seen.  POT.  Thou  may  see,  Thou  might 
see,  Thou  may  have  seen,  Thou  might  have  seen.  SUBJ.  If  thou  see,  If 
thou  saw.  IMP.  See  [thou,]  or  Do  thou  see. 

THIRD  EXAMPLE. 

The  irregular  neuter  verb  BE,  conjugated  affirmatively. 

Principal  Parts. 

Present.        Preterit.        Imp.  Participle.        Perf.  Participle. 
Be.  Was.  Being.  Been. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
To  be. 

Perfect  Tense. 
To  have  been. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

OBS. — Be  was  formerly  used  in  the  indicative  present:  as,  "We  be  twelve 
brethren." — Gen.  xlii.  32.  "What  be  these  two  olive  branches'?" — Zech.  iv. 
12.  But  this  construction  is  now  obsolete. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I          am,  1.  We     are, 

2.  Thou  art,  2.  You    are, 

3.  He      is ;  3.  They  are. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         was,  1.  We     were, 

2.  Thou  wast,  2.  You   were, 

3.  He      was ;  3.  They  were. 


68  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Perfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         have  been,  1.  We     have  been, 

2.  Thou  hast  been,  2.  You   have  been, 

3.  He      has    been ;  3.  They  have  been. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I          had    been,  1.  We     had  been, 

2.  Thou  hadst  been,  2.  You    had  been, 

3.  He      had    been;  3.  They  had  been. 

First-future  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         shall  be,  1.  We     shall  be, 

2.  Thou  wilt  be,  2.  You   will  be, 

3.  He      will   be;  3.  They  will  be. 

Second-future  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural,. 

1.  I          shall  have  been,  1.  We     shall  have  been, 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  been,  2.  You    will  have  been, 

3.  He      will  have  been  ;  3.  They  will  have  been, 

POTENTIAL  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  PluraL 

1.  I          may     be,  1.  We     may  be, 

2.  Thou  mayst  be,  2.  You    may  be, 

3.  He      may    be ;  3.  They  may  be. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         might    be,  1.  We     might  be, 

2.  Thou  mightst  be,  2.  You    might  be, 

3.  He      might    be ;  3.  They  might  be. 

Perfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         may    have  been,         1.  We     may  have  been, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been,         2.  You    may  have  been, 

3.  He      may    have  been;        3.  1  hey  may  have  been. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1    I          might    have  been,  1.  We     might  have  been, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  leen,  2.  You    might  have  been, 

3    He      might    have  been  ;  5    They  might  have  been. 


ETYMOLOGY. VERBS.  6J> 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I       be,  1.  If  we     be, 

2.  If  thou  be,  2.  If  you   be, 

3.  If  he     be;  3.  If  they  be. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I        were,  1.  If  we    were, 

2.  If  thou  wert,  2.  If  you  were, 

3.  If  he     were  ;  3.  If  they  were. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.     2.  Be  [thou,]  or  Do  thou  be  ; 

Plural.         2.  Be  [ye  or  youj  or  Do  you   be. 

PARTICIPLES. 

1.   The  Imperfect.     2.    The  Perfect.     3.   The  Pluperfect. 
Being.  Been.  Having  been. 

OBS. — In  the  familiar  style,  the  second  person  singular  of  this  verb  is  usual' 
Iy  formed  thus :  IND.  Thou  art,  Thou  was,  Thou  hast  been,  Thou  had  been, 
Thou  will  be,  Thou  will  have  been.  POT.  Thou  may  be,  Thou  might  be, 
Thou  may  have  been,  Thou  might  have  been.  SUBJ.  If  thou  be,  If  thou 
were.  IMP.  Be  [thou,]  or  Do  thou  be. 

II.  COMPOUND  FORM,  ACTIVE  OR  NEUTBR. 

Active  and  neuter  verbs  may  also  be  conjugated,  by  ad- 
ding the  Imperfect  Participle  to  the  auxiliary  verb  BE, 
through  all  its  changes ;  as,  I  am  writing — He  is  sitting. 
This  form  of  the  verb  denotes  a  continuance*  of  the  ac- 
tion or  the  state  of  being,  and  is,  on  many  occasions,  pref- 
erable to  the  simple  form  of  the  verb. 

OBS. — Verbs  of  this  form  have  sometimes  a  passive  signification ;  as,  "The 
books  are  now  selling" — Allen's  Gram.  p.  82.  "  It  requires  no  motion  in 
the  organs  whilst  it  is  forming" — Murray's  Gram.  p.  8.  "  While  the  work 
of  the  temple  was  carrying  on." — Dr.  J.  Owen.  "  The  designs  of  Provi- 
dence are  carrying  on." — Dp.  Butler.  "  We  are  permitted  to  know  nothing 
of  what  is  transacting  in  the  regions  above  us." — Dr.  Blair.  Expressions 
of  this  kind  are  condemned  by  some  critics;  but  the  usage  is  unquestiona- 
bly of  far  better  authority,  and  (according  to  my  apprehension)  in  far  bettei 
taste,  than  the  more  complex  phraseology  which  some  late  writers  adopt  i-n 
its  stead ;  as,  "  The  books  are  now  being  sold" 


*  Those,  verbs  which,  in  their  simple  form,  imply  continuance,  do  not  ad- 
mit the  compound  form ;  thus  we  say,  "  I  respect  him ;"  but  not, "  I  am  respect 

tw/T  lilm   " 


TO  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

FOURTH  EXAMPLE. 

Tht  irregular  active  verb  READ,  conjugated  affirmatively  in  the 

Compound  Form. 

Principal  Parts  of  the  Simple  Verb. 

Present.        Preterit.        Imp.  Participk.       Perf.  Participle. 
Read.          Read.  Reading.  Read. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

To  be  reading. 

Perfect  Tense. 

To  have  been  reading. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural 

1.  I          am  reading,  1.  We    are  reading, 

2.  Thou  art  reading,  2.  You   are  reading, 

3.  He      is     reading ;  3.  They  are  reading. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I          was  reading,  1.  We     were  reading, 

2.  Thou  wast  reading,  2.  You   were  reading, 

3.  He      was  reading;  3.  They  were  reading. 

Perfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         have  been  reading,     1.  We    have  been  reading, 

2.  Thou  hast  been  reading,     2.  You   have  been  reading, 

3.  He      has    been  reading ;    3.  They  have  been  reading. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I          had    been  reading,    1.  We     had  been  reading, 

2.  Thou  hadst  been  reading,    2.  You   had  been  reading, 

3.  He      had    been  reading  ;    3.  They  had  been  reading, 

First-future  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I          shall  be  reading,  1.  We     shall  be  reading, 

2.  Thou  wilt  be  reading,  2.  You   will   be  reading, 

3.  He      will   be  reading  ;  3.  They  will  be  reading. 

Second-future  Tense. 
Singular.     1.  I          shall  have  been  reading, 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  been  reading, 

3.  He      will  have  been  reading ; 


ETYMOLOGY. VERBS. 


11 


Plura*.         1.  We     shall  have  been  reading, 

2.  You   will   have  been  reading, 

3.  They  will  have  been  reading. 

POTENTIAL  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         may    be  reading,       1.  We    may  be  reading, 

2.  Thou  mayst  be  reading,       2.  You   may  be  reading, 

3.  He      may    be  reading ;      3.  They  may  be  reading. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I          might    be  reading,    1.  We     might  be  reading, 

2.  Thou  mightst  be  reading,    2.  You   might  be  reading, 

3.  He      might    be  reading ;  3.  They  might  be  reading. 

Perfect  Tense. 
Singular*     I.  I         may    have  been  reading, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been  reading, 

3.  He      may    have  been  reading  ; 
Plural.         1.  We     may     have  been  reading, 

2.  You   may    have  been  reading, 

3.  They  may     have  been  reading. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 
Singular.     1.  I         might     have  been  reading, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been  reading, 

3.  He      might    have  been  reading  ; 
Plural.         1.  We     might    have  been  reading, 

2.  You    might    have  been  reading, 

3.  They  might    have  been  reading. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

be  reading,  1.  If  we    be  reading, 

2.  If  you  be  reading, 

3.  If  they  be  reading, 
Imperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural 

1.  If  I         were  reading,  1.  If  we     were  reading, 

2.  If  thou  wert  reading,  2.  If  you  were  reading, 
S.  If  he      were  reading  ;            3.  If  they  were  reading. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Sing.  2.  Be      [thou]      reading,  or  Do  thou  be  reading. 
Pfar.   2.  Be  [ye  or  you]  reading,  &r  Do  you   be  reading. 


1.  If  I 

2.  If  thou  be  reading, 

3.  If  he     be  reading ; 


72  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

PARTICIPLES. 

1.   The  Imperfect.  2.   The  Perfect.         3.   The  Pluperfect. 

Being  reading.  Having  been  reading. 

OBS. — In  the  familiar  style,  the  second  person  singular  of  this  verb.  IB 
usually  formed  thus :  Ixn.  Thou  art  reading  Thou  was  reading,  Thou 
hast  been  reading,  Thou  had  been  reading,  Thou  will  be  reading,  Thou 
will  have  been  re 
ing,  Thou  may  h 
If  thou  be  read  in; 
thou  be  reading. 

III.  FORM  OF  PASSIVE  VERBS. 

Passive  verbs,  in  English,  are  always  of  a  compound 
form  ;  being  made  from  active-transitive  verbs,  by  adding 
the  Perfect  Participle  to  the  auxiliary  verb  BE,  through 
all  its  changes  :  thus,  from  the  active-transitive  verb  love, 
is  formed  the  passive  verb  be  loved. 

OBS.  1. — A  few  active-intransitive  verbs,  that  merely  imply  motion,  or 
change  of  condition,  may  be  put  into  this  form,  with  a  neuter  signification; 
making  not  passive  but  neuter  verbs,  which  express  nothing  more  than  the 
state  which  results  from  the  change :  as,  I  am  come ;  He  is  risen ;  They  are 
fallen.  Our  ancient  writers,  after  the  manner  of  the  French,  very  frequent- 
ly employed  this  mode  of  conjugation  in  a  neuter  sense;  but,  with  a  few  ex- 
ceptions, present  usage  is  clearly  in  favour  of  the  auxiliary  have  in  preference 
to  6e,  whenever  the  verb  formed  with  the  perfect  participle  is  not  passive  ; 
as,  They  have  arrived — not,  They  are  arrived. 

OBS.  2. — Passive  verbs  may  be  distinguished  from  neuter  verbs  of  the 
same  form,  by  a  reference  to  the  agent  or  instrument ;  which  frequently  is, 
and  always  may  be  expressed  after  passive  verbs ;  but  which  never  is,  and 
never  can  be,  expressed  after  neuter  verbs  :  as,  "  The  thief  has  been  caught 
by  the  officer." — "  Pens  are  made  with  a  knife." 

FIFTH  EXAMPLE. 

The  regular  passive  verb  BE  LOVED,  conjugated  affirmatively. 
Principal  Parts  of  the  Active  Verb. 

Present.          Preterit.       Imper.  Participle.        Perfect  Participle. 

Love.  Loved.  Loving.  Loved. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

To  be  loved. 

Perfect  Tense. 

To  have  been  loved. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I          am  loved,  1.  We     are  loved, 

2,  Thou  art  loved,  2.  You    are  loved, 
3   He      is    loved ;  3.  They  are  loved, 


ETYMOLOGY. VERBS.  78 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         was  loved,  1.  We    were  loved, 

2.  Thou  wast  loved,  2.  You  were  loved, 

3.  He      was  loved  ;  3.  They  were  loved. 

Perfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         have  been  loved,        1.  We    have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  hast  been  loved,       2.  You  have  been  loved. 

3.  He      has    been  loved  ;       3.  They  have  been  loved. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         had    been  loved,       1.  We    had  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  hadst  been  loved,       2.  You  had  been  loved, 

3.  He      had   been  loved  ;      3,  They  had  been  loved. 

First-future  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         shall  be  loved,  1.  We     shall  be  loved, 

2.  Thou  wilt  be  loved,  2.  You   will  be  loved, 

3.  He      will  be  loved ;  3.  They  will  be  loved, 

Second-future  Tense. 

Singular.     1.  I          shall  have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  been  loved, 

3.  He      will  have  been  loved  ; 
Plural.         1.  We     shall  have  been  loved, 

2.  You   will   have  been  loved, 

3.  They  will  have  been  loved. 

POTENTIAL  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         may    he  loved,  1.  We    may  be  loved, 

2.  Thou  mayst  be  loved,  2.  You  may  be  loved, 

3.  He      may    be  loved ;  3.  They  may  be  loved. 

Imperfect  Tense, 
Singular.  Plural 

1.  I         might    be  loved,         1.  We     might  be  loved, 

2.  Thou  mightst  be  loved,         2.  You   might  be  loved, 

3.  He      might    be  loved ;        3.  They  might  be  loved. 


74 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.     1.  I          may    have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been  loved, 

3.  He      may    have  been  loved  j 
Plural.         1.  We     may    have  been  loved, 

2.  You   may    have  been  loved, 

3.  They  may    have  been  loved. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 
Singular.     1.         I   might    have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been  loved, 

3.  He      might    have  been  loved  ; 
Plural.         1.  We     might    have  been  loved, 

2.  You    might    have  been  loved, 

3.  They  might    have  been  loved, 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 


Singular. 

1.  If  I       beloved, 

2.  If  thou  be  loved, 

3.  If  he     be  loved  ; 


Present  Tense. 

Plural. 

1.  If  we     be  lov<»d 

2.  If  you   be  loved 

3.  If  they  be  loved 

Imperfect  Tense. 

Plural 

1.  If  I        were  loved,  1.  If  we     were  loved, 

2.  If  thou  wert  loved,  2.  If  you   were  loved, 

3.  If  he     were  loved  ;  3.  If  they  were  loved. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  2.  Be  [thou  J  loved,  or  Do  thou  be  loved  * 

Plural      2.  Be  [ye  or  you,]  loved,  or  Do  you  be  loved. 


Singular. 


1.    The  Imperfect. 
loved. 


PARTICIPLES. 

2.  TJie  Perfect. 
Loved. 


3.  The  Pluperfect. 
Having  been  loved. 

OBS. — In  the  familiar  style,  the  second  person  singular  of  this  verb,  is 
usually  formed  thus :  IND.  Thou  art  loved,  Thou  was  loved,  Thou  hast  been 
loved,  Thou  had  been  loved,  Thou  will  be  loved,  Thou  will  have  been  loved. 
POT.  Thou  may  be  loved,  Thou  might  be  loved,  Thou  may  have  been  lovod, 
Thou  might  have  been  loved.  SUBJ.  If  thou  be  loved,  If  thou  were  loved. 
IMP.  Be  [thou]  loved,  or  Do  thou  be  loved. 

IV.  FORM  OF  NEGATION. 

A  verb  is  conjugated  negatively,  by  placing  the  adverb 
not  after  it,  or  after  the  first  auxiliary ;  but  the  infinitive 
and  participles  take  the  negative  first :  as, 


ETYMOLOGY. VERBS.  75 

INF.  Not  to  love,  Not  to  have  loved.  IND.  I  love  not,  &r  I 
do  not  love,  I  loved  not,  or  I  did  not  love,  I  have  not  loved 
I  had  not  loved,  I  shall  not  love,  I  shall  not  have  loved.  POT. 
I  may,  can,*  or  must  not  love ;  I  might,  could,  would,  or  should 
not  love ;  I  may,  can,  or  must  not  have  loved  ;  I  might,  could, 
would,  or  should  not  have  loved.  SUBJ.  If  I  love  not,  If  I  loved 
not  PART.  Not  loving,  Not  loved,  Not  having  loved. 

V.  FORM  OF  QUESTION. 

A  verb  is  conjugated  interrogatively,  in  the  indicative 
and  potential  moods,  by  placing  the  nominative  after  it,  or 
after  the  first  auxiliary  :  as, 

IND.  Do  I  love?  Did  I  love?  Have  I  loved?  Had  I  loved? 
Shall  I  love  ?  Shall  I  have  loved  ?  POT.  May,  can,  or  must  s 
love  ?  Might,  could,  would,  or  should  I  love  ?  May,  can,  &/ 
must  I  have  loved?  Might,  could,  would,  or  should  I  have 
loved? 

VI.  FORM  OF  QUESTION  WITH  NEGATION. 

A  verb  is  conjugated  interrogatively  and  negatively,  in 
the  indicative  and  potential  moods,  by  placing  the  nomina- 
tive and  the  adverb  not  after  the  verb,  or  after  the  first 
auxiliary:  as, 

IND.  Do  I  not  love?  Did  I  not  love?  Have  I  not  loved? 
Had  I  not  loved  ?  Shall  I  not  love  ?  Shall  I  not  have  loved  ? 
POT.  May,  can,  or  must  I  not  love  ?  Might,  could,  would,  or 
should  I  not  love  ?  May,  can,  or  must  I  not  have  loved  ?  Might, 
could,  would,  or  should  I  not  have  loved  ? 

IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

An  irregular  verb  is  a  verb  that  does  not  form  the  pre- 
terit and  perfect  participle  by  assuming  d  or  ed. 

OBS.  1 . — When  the  verb  ends  in  a  sharp  consonant,  t  is  sometimes  im- 
properly substituted  for  ed,  making  the  preterit  and  the  perfect  participle  ir- 
regular in  spelling,  when  they  are  not  so  in  sound :  as,  dislrest  for  distressed, 
tost  for  tossed,  curst  for  cursed,  crackt  for  cracked. 

OBS.  2. — When  the  verb  ends  with  a  smooth  consonant,  the  substitu- 
tion of  t  for  ed  produces  an  irregularity  in  sound,  as  well  as  in  writing. 
In  some  such  irregularities,  the  poets  are  indulged  for  the  sake  of  rhyme ; 
but  the  best  speakers  and  writers  of  prose  prefer  the  regular  form  wherever 
good  use  has  sanctioned  it:  thus,  learned  is  better  than  learnt;  burned, 

*  When  power  is  denied,  can  and  not  are  united  to  prevent  ambiguity ;  as 
"  I  cannot  go."  But  when  the  power  is  affirmed,  and  something  else  is  denied, 
the  words  are  written  separately ;  as,  "  The  Christian  apologist  can  not  merely 
expose  the  utter  baseness  of  the  infidel  assertion,  but  he  has  positive  ground 
for  erecting  an  opposite  and  confronting  assertion  in  its  place." — Dr.  Chalmers 


76 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR, 


than  burnt ;  penned,  than  pent ;  absorbed,  than  absorpt ;  spelled,  than  spdt  i 
smetlcd,  than  sindt. 

OBS.  3. — Several  of  the  irregular  verbs  are  variously  used  by  the  best  au- 
thors ;  and  many  preterits  and  participles  which  were  fomerly  in  good  use, 
are  now  obsolete,  or  becoming  so. 

OBS.  4. — The  simple  irregular  verbs  are  about  170  in  number,  and  are 
nearly  all  monosyllables.  They  are  derived  from  the  Saxon,  in  which  lan- 
guage they  are  also,  for  the  most  part,  irregular. 

OBS.  5. — The  following  alphabetical  list  exhibits  the  simple  irregular  verbs, 
as  they  are  now  generally  used.  Where  the  regular  form  is  preferable,  it  is 
inserted  first,  and  at  full  length ;  those  which  have  a  regular  form  less  au- 
thorized, are  marked  with  the  letter  R. 


LIST  OF  THE  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


Present. 

Preterit. 

Imp.  Participle. 

Perf.  Participle. 

Abide, 

abode, 

abiding, 

abode. 

Be, 

was, 

being, 

been. 

Bear, 

bore  or  bare, 

bearing, 

borne  or  born.* 

Beat, 

beat, 

beating, 

beaten  or  beat. 

Begin, 

began. 

beginning, 

begun. 

Bend, 

bent,  R. 

bending, 

bent,  R. 

Beseech, 

besought, 

beseeching, 

besought. 

Bid, 

bid  or  bade, 

bidding, 

bidden  or  bid. 

Bind, 

bound, 

binding, 

bound. 

Bite, 

bit, 

biting, 

bitten  or  bit. 

Bleed, 

bled, 

bleeding, 

bled. 

Blow, 

blew, 

blowing, 

blown. 

Break, 

broke, 

breaking, 

broken. 

Breed, 

bred, 

breeding, 

bred. 

Bring, 

brought, 

bringing, 

brought. 

Build, 

built,  R. 

building, 

built,  R. 

Burst, 
Buy, 

burst, 
bought, 

bursting, 
buying, 

burst, 
bought. 

Cast, 

cast, 

casting, 

cast. 

Catch, 

caught,  R. 

catching, 

caught,  R. 

Chide, 

chid, 

chiding, 

chidden  or  chid. 

Choose, 

chose. 

choosing, 

chosen. 

Cleave,! 

cleft  or  clove, 

cleaving, 

cleft  or  cloven. 

Cling, 
Clothe, 

clung, 
clothed  or  clad, 

clinging, 
clothing, 

clung, 
clothed  or  clad. 

Come, 

came, 

coming, 

come. 

Cost, 

COStj 

costing, 

cost. 

Crow, 

crowed  or  crew, 

crowing,. 

crowed. 

Creep, 

crept,  R. 

creeping, 

crept.  R. 

Cut, 

cut, 

cutting, 

cut. 

*  Borne  signifies  carried;  born  signifies  brought  forth. 
t  Cleave  to  split,  is  irregular  as  above  ;  cleave,  to  stick,  is  regular,  b 
^as  formerly  used  in  the  preterit. 


ETYMOLOGY. VERBS. 


77 


Present. 

Preterit.                 Imp.  Participle. 

Perf.  Participle, 

Dare, 

dared  or  durst, 

daring, 

dared. 

Deal, 

dealt,  R. 

dealing, 

dealt,  R. 

Dig, 

dug,  R. 

digging, 

dug,  R. 

Do, 

did, 

doing, 

done. 

Draw, 

drew, 

drawing, 

drawn. 

Dream, 

dreamt,  R. 

dreaming, 

dreamt,  R. 

Drive, 

drove, 

driving, 

driven. 

Drink, 

drank, 

drinking, 

drunk. 

Dwell, 

dwelt,  R. 

dwelling, 

dwelt,  R. 

Eat, 
Fall, 
Feed, 

ate  er  eat, 
fell, 
fed, 

eating, 
falling, 
feeding, 

eaten, 
fallen, 
fed. 

Feel, 

felt, 

feeling, 

felt. 

Fight, 

fought, 

fighting, 

fought. 

Find, 

found, 

finding, 

found, 

Flee, 

fled, 

fleeing, 

fled. 

Fling, 

flung, 

flinging, 

flung. 

Fly, 

flew, 

flying. 

flown. 

Forsake, 

forsook, 

forsaking, 

forsaken. 

Freeze, 

froze, 

freezing, 

frozen. 

Get, 

go*, 

getting, 

got  or  gotten. 

Gild, 

gilt,  R. 

gilding, 

gilt,  R. 

Gird, 

gin,  R. 

girding, 

girt,  R. 

Give, 

gave, 

giving, 

given. 

Go,    x 

went, 

going, 

gone. 

Graved, 

graved, 

graving, 

graved  or  graven. 

Grind, 

ground, 

grinding, 

ground. 

Grow, 

grew, 

growing, 

grown. 

Hang, 

hung,  R. 

hanging, 

hung,  R. 

Have, 

had, 

having, 

had. 

Hear, 

heard, 

hearing, 

heard. 

Heave, 

heaved  or  hove, 

heaving, 

heaved  or  hoven. 

Hew, 

hewed, 

hewing, 

hewed  or  hewn. 

Hide, 

hid, 

hiding, 

hidden  or  hid. 

Hit, 

Hold, 

hit, 
held, 

hitting, 
holding, 

hit. 
held. 

Hurt, 

hurt, 

hurting, 

hurt. 

Keep, 

kept, 

keeping, 

kept. 

Kneel, 

kneeled  or  knelt, 

kneeling, 

kneeled  or  knelt. 

Knit, 

knit,  R. 

knitting, 

knit,  R. 

Know, 

knew, 

knowing, 

known. 

Lade, 

laded, 

lading, 

laden,  R. 

Lay> 

laid, 

laying, 

laid. 

Lean, 

leaned  or  leant, 

leaning, 

leaned  or  leant. 

Lead, 

led, 

leading, 

led. 

Leave^ 

left, 

leaving, 

left. 

78 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


Present. 

Preterit. 

Imp.  Participle. 

Perf.  Participle. 

Lend. 

lent, 

lending, 

lent. 

Let, 

let, 

letting, 

let. 

Lie, 

lay? 

lving> 

lain. 

Light, 

lighted  or  lit, 

lighting, 

lighted  or  lit. 

Lose, 

lost, 

losing, 

lost. 

Make, 

made, 

making, 

made. 

Mean, 

meant,  R. 

meaning, 

meant,  R. 

Meet, 

met, 

meeting, 

met. 

Mow, 

mowed, 

mowing, 

mowed  or  mown. 

Pay, 

paid, 

Paying? 

paid. 

Put, 

put, 

putting, 

put. 

Quit, 

quitted  or  quit, 

quitting, 

quitted  or  quit 

Read, 

read, 

reading, 

read. 

Reave, 

reft,  R. 

reaving, 

reft,  R. 

Rend, 

rent, 

rending, 

rent. 

Rid, 

rid, 

ridding, 

rid. 

Ride, 

rode, 

riding, 

ridden  or  rode. 

Ring, 

rung  or  rang. 

ringing, 

rung. 

Rise, 

rose, 

rising, 

risen. 

Rive, 

rived, 

riving, 

riven  or  rived, 

Run, 

ran, 

running, 

run. 

Saw, 

sawed, 

sawing, 

sawed  or  sawn. 

Say, 

said, 

saying, 

said. 

See, 

saw, 

seeing, 

seen. 

Seek, 

sought, 

-    seeking, 

sought. 

Seethe, 

seemed  or  sod, 

seething, 

seethed  or  sodden. 

Sell, 

sold, 

selling, 

sold. 

Send, 

sent, 

sending, 

sent. 

Set, 

set, 

setting, 

set. 

Shake, 

shook, 

shaking, 

shaken. 

Shave, 

shaved, 

shaving, 

shaved  or  shaven. 

Shear, 

sheared, 

shearing, 

sheared  or  shorn. 

Shed, 

shed, 

shedding, 

shed. 

Shine, 

shone,  R. 

shining, 

shone,  R. 

Shoe, 

shod, 

shoeing, 

shod. 

Show, 

showed, 

showing, 

shown,  R. 

Shoot, 

shot, 

shooting, 

shot. 

Shut, 

shut, 

shutting, 

shut. 

Shred, 

shred, 

shredding, 

shred. 

Shrink, 

shrunk, 

shrinking, 

shrunk. 

Sing, 

sung  or  sang, 

singing, 

sung. 

Sink, 

sunk  or  sank, 

sinking, 

sunk. 

Sit, 

sat, 

sitting, 

sat. 

Slay, 

slew, 

slaying, 

slain. 

Sleep, 
Slide, 

slept, 
slid, 

sleeping, 
sliding, 

slept, 
slidden  or  slid. 

Sling 

slung. 

slinging, 

slun£ 

ETYlVOL^Oi.  —VERBS. 


Present. 

Preterit.                   Imp.  Participle. 

Perf.  Participle. 

Slink, 

slunk, 

slinking, 

slunk. 

Slit, 

slit,  R. 

slitting, 

slit,  R. 

Smite, 

smote, 

smiting, 

smitten  or  smit. 

Sow, 

sowed, 

sowing, 

sowed  or  sown. 

Speak, 

spoke, 

speaking, 

spoken. 

Speed, 

sped, 

speeding, 

sped. 

Spend, 

spent, 

spending, 

spent. 

Spill, 

spilt,  R. 

spilling, 

spilt,  R. 

Spin, 

spun, 

spinning, 

spun. 

Spit, 

spit  or  spat, 

spitting, 

spit. 

Split, 

split,  ; 

splitting, 

split. 

Spread, 

spread, 

spreading, 

spread. 

Spring, 

sprung  or  sprang, 

springing, 

sprung 

Stand, 

stood, 

standing, 

stood. 

Steal, 

stole, 

stealing, 

stolen. 

Stick, 

stuck, 

sticking, 

stuck. 

Sting, 

stung, 

stinging, 

stung. 

Stride, 

strode  or  strid, 

striding, 

stridden. 

Strike, 

struck, 

striking, 

struck. 

String, 

strung,  R. 

stringing, 

strung,  R. 

Strive, 

strove,  R. 

striving, 

striven,  R. 

Strow, 

strowed, 

strewing, 

strowed  or  strowiL 

Swear, 

swore, 

swearing, 

sworn. 

Sweat, 

sweated  or  swet, 

sweating, 

sweated  or  swet. 

Sweep, 
Swell, 

swept, 
swelled, 

sweeping, 
swelling, 

swept, 
swelled  or  swollen 

Swim, 

swum  or  swarn, 

swimming, 

swum. 

Swing, 

swung, 

swinging, 

swung. 

Take, 

took, 

taking, 

taken. 

Teach, 

taught, 

teaching, 

taught. 

Tear, 

tore, 

tearing, 

torn. 

Tell, 

told, 

telling, 

told. 

Think, 

thought, 

thinking, 

thought. 

Thrive, 

thrived  or  throve, 

thriving, 

thrived  or  thriven. 

Throw, 

threw,  R. 

throwing, 

thrown,  R. 

Thrust, 

thrust, 

thrusting, 

thrust. 

Tread, 

trod, 

treading, 

trodden  or  trod. 

Wake, 

waked  or  woke, 

waking, 

waked. 

Wear, 

wore, 

wearing, 

worn. 

Weave, 

wove,  R. 

weaving, 

woven,  R. 

Weep, 

wept,  R. 

weeping, 

wept,  R. 

Win, 

won, 

winning, 

won. 

Wind, 

wound,  R. 

winding, 

wound. 

Wont, 

wont,  R. 

wonting, 

wont,  R. 

Work, 

worked  or  wrought, 

working, 

work'd  or  wrought 

Wring, 

wrung,  R. 

wringing, 

wrung. 

Write, 

wrote, 

writing, 

written. 

OU  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 

OBS. — In  the  preceding  list,  those  preterits  and  participles  which  are  pre 
ferable,  and  best  supported  by  authorities,  are  placed  first.  All  compounds 
that  follow  the  form  of  their  simple  verbs,  are  here  omitted.  Some  words 
which  are  obsolete,  have  also  been  omitted,  that  the  learner  might  not  mis- 
take  them  for  words  in  present  use.  Some  of  those  which  are  placed  last, 
are  now  little  used. 

DEFECTIVE  VERBS. 

A  defective  verb  is  a  verb  which  wants  some  of  the  prin- 
cipal parts.  When  any  of  the  principal  parts  are  wanting, 
the  tenses  usually  derived  from  those  parts  are  also  wanting. 

All  the  auxiliaries,  except  do,  be,  and  have,  are  defective.  The 
following  is  a  list  of  the  defective  verbs : 

Present.  Preterit.  Imp.  Part.  Perf.  Part. 

Beware,  

Can,  could,                •  

May,  might,  

Must,  must,  

Ought,  ought,               

Shall,  should,             

Will,  would,              

duoth,  quoth, 

OBS.  1. — Beware  is  not  used  in  the  indicative  present.  Must  is  nevei 
varied  in  termination.  Ought  is  invariable,  except  in  the  solemn  style, 
where  we  find  oughtest.  Will  is  sometimes  used  as  a  principal  verb,  and 
as  such  is  regular  and  complete.  Quoth  is  used  only  in  ludicrous  lan- 
guage, and  is  not  varied.  It  seems  to  be  properly  the  third  person  singu- 
lar of  the  present ;  for  it  ends  in  th}  and  quod  was  formerly  used  as  the  pre- 
terit: as, 

"  Yea,  so  sayst  thou,  (quod  Troylus,)  alas!" — Chaucer. 

OBS.  2. — Some  verbs  from  the  nature  of  the  subject  to  which  they  refer, 
can  be  used  only  in  the  third  person  singular;  as,  It  rains;  it  snows,'  it 
freezes;  it  hails;  it  lightens ;  it  thunders.  These  have  been  called  imper- 
sonal verbs.  The  neuter  pronoun  it,  which  is  always  used  before  them,  does 
not  seem  to  represent  any  noun,  but,  in  connexion  with  the  verb,  merely  to 
express  a  state  of  things. 


OF  THE  PARTICIPLE. 

A  Participle  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb,  participating 
the  properties  of  a  verb  and  an  adjective  ;  and  is  generally 
formed  by  adding  ing,  d,  or  ed,  to  the  verb :  thus,  from  the 
verb  rule,  are  formed  three  participles,  two  simple  and  one 
compound ;  as,  1.  ruling,  2.  ruled,  3.  having  ruled. 

OBS.  1. — Almost  all  verbs  and  participles  seem  to  have  their  very 
essence  in  motion  or  the  privation  of  motum.  And  to  all  motion  and  rest, 
time  and  place  are  necessary  concomitants;  nor  are  the  ideas  of  degrt* 
and  manner  often  irrelevant.  Hence  the  use  of  tenses  and  of  adverb* 


ETYMOLOGY.— PARTICIPLES.  81 

For  whatsoever  comes  to  pass,  must  come  to  pass  sometime  and  somewhere ; 
and,  in  every  event,  something  must  be  affected  somewhat  and  somehow. 
Hence  it  is  evident  that  those  grammarians  are  right,  who  say  that  all  par- 
ticiples imply  time.  But  it  does  not  follow  that  the  English  participle* 
divide  time,  like  the  tenses  of  a  verb,  and  specify  the  period  of  action; 
on  the  contrary,  it  is  certain  and  manifest  that  they  do  not.  The  phrase, 
11  men  labouring"  conveys  no  other  idea  than  that  of  labourers  at  work; 
it  no  more  suggests  the  time,  than  the  place,  degree,  or  manner  of  theii 
work.  All  these  circumstances  require  other  words  to  express  them;  as, 
"  Men  now  here  awkwardly  labouring  much  to  little  purpose. 

OBS.  2. — Participles  retain  the  essential  meaning  of  their  verbs :  and,  Kkt 
verbs,  are  either  active-transitive,  active-intransitive,  passive,  or  neuter,  in 
their  signification.  For  this  reason,  many  have  classed  them  with  the  verbs. 
But  their  formal  meaning  is  obviously  different.  They  convey  no  affirma- 
tion, but  usually  relate  to  nouns  or  pronouns,  like  adjectives,  except  when 
they  are  joined  with  auxiliaries  to  form  the  compound  tenses.  Hence  some 
have  injudiciously  ranked  them  with  the  adjectives.  We  have  assigned 
them  a  separate  place  among  the  parts  of  speech,  because  experience  has 
shown  that  it  is  expedient  to  do  so. 

OBS.  3. — The  English  participles  are  all  derived  from  the  root  of  their 
respective  verbs,  and  do  not  (like  those  of  some  other  languages)  take  their 
names  from  the  tenses.  They  are  reckoned  among  the  principal  parts  in 
the  conjugation  of  their  verbs,  and  many  of  the  tenses  are  formed  from 
them.  In  the  compound  forms  of  conjugation,  they  are  found  alike  in  all 
the  tenses.  They  do  not  therefore,  of  themselves,  express  any  particular 
time;  but  they  denote  the  state  of  the  being,  action,  or  passion,  in  regard  to 
its  progress  or  completion.  [See  remarks  on  tJie  Participles,  in  the  Port- 
Royal  Latin  and  Greek  Grammars.] 

CLASSES. 

English  verbs  have  severally  three  participles ;  which 
have  been  very  variously  denominated,  perhaps  the  most 
accurately  thus  :  the  Imperfect,  the  Perfect,  and  the  Plu- 
perfect. Or,  as  their  order  is  undisputed,  they  may  be  con- 
veniently called  the  First,  the  Second,  and*the  Third. 

I.  The  imperfect  participle  is  that  which  implies  a  con- 
tinuance of 'the  being, action,  or  passion;  as,  being,  loving, 
seeing,  writing — being  loved,  being  seen,  being  writing. 

II.  The  perfect  participle  is  that  which  implies  a  com- 
pletion of  the  being,  action,  or  passion ;  as,  been,  loved, 
seen,  written. 

III.  The  pluperfect  participle  is  that  which  implies  a 
previous  completion  of  the  being,  action,  or  passion ;  as 
having  loved,  having  seen,  having  written — having 
been  loved,  having  been  writing,  having  been  written. 

The  First  or  Imperfect  Participle,  when  simple,  is  al 
ways  formed  by  adding  ing  to  the  radical  verb  ;  as,  lookt 
looking  :  when  compound,  it  is  formed  by  prefixing  being 
to  some  other  simple  participle;  as,  being  reading, being 
read. 


82  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

The  Second  or  Perfect  Participle  is  always  simple,  and 
is  regularly  formed  by  adding  d  or  ed  to  the  radical  verb : 
those  verbs  from  which  it  is  formed  otherwise,  are  inserted 
In  the  list  as  being  irregular. 

The  Third  or  Pluperfect  Participle  is  always  com- 
pound, and  is  formed  by  prefixing  having  to  the  perfect, 
when  the  compound  is  double,  and  having  been  to  the  per- 
fect or  the  imperfect,  when  the  compound  is  triple :  as,  hav- 
ing spoken,  having  been  spoken,  having  been  speaking. 

OBS.  1. — Some  have  supposed  that  both  the  simple  participles  denote 
present  time;  some  have  supposed  that  the  one  denotes  present  and  the 
other  past  time ;  some  have  supposed  that  neither  has  any  regard  to  time ; 
and  some  have  supposed  that  both  are  of  all  times.  In  regard  to  the  man- 
ner of  their  signification,  some  have  supposed  the  one  to  be  active  and  the 
other  to  be  passive ;  some  have  supposed  the  participle  in  ing  to  be  active 
or  neuter,  and  the  other  active  or  passive  ;  and  some  have  supposed  that 
either  of  them  may  be  active,  passive,  or  neuter.  Nor  is  there  any  more 
unanimity  among  grammarians,  in  respect  to  the  compounds.  Hence 
several  different  names  have  been  loosely  given  to  each  of  the  participles ; 
and  sometimes  with  manifest  impropriety ;  as  when  Buchanan,  in  his  con- 
jugations," calls  being  Active — and  been,  having  been,  and  liaving  had,  Pas- 
sive. The  First  participle  has  been  called  the  Present,  the  Imperfect,  the 
Activv,  the  Present  active,  the  Present  passive,  the  Present  neuter;  the 
Second  has  been  called  the  Perfect,  the  Past,  the  Passive,  the  Perfect  active, 
the  Perfect  passive,  the  Perfect  neuter  ;  and  the  Third  has  been  called 
the  Compound,  the  Compound  active,  the  Compound  passive,  the  Com- 
pound perfect,  the  Pluperfect.  But  the  application  of  a  name  is  of  little 
consequence,  so  that  the  thing  itself  be  rightly  understood  by  the  learner. 
Grammar  should  be  taught  in  a  style  at  once  neat  and  plain,  clear  and 
brief.  Upon  the  choice  of  his  terms  the  writer  has  bestowed  much  reflec- 
tion ;  yet  he  finds  it  impossible  either  to  please  everybody,  or  to  explain  all 
the  reasons  for  preference. 

OBS.  2. — The  participle  in  ing  represents  the  action  or  state  as  continu- 
ing and  ever  incomplete ;  it  is  therefore  rightly  termed  the  IMPERFECT  par- 
ticiple :  whereas  the  participle  in  ed  always  has  reference  to  the  action  as 
done  and  complete ;  and  is  by  proper  contradistinction  called  the  PERFECT 
participle.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add,  that  the  terms  perfect  and  imper- 
fect., as  thus  applied  to  the  English  participles,  have  no  reference  to  time,  or 
to  those  tenses  of  the  verb  which  are  usually  (but  not  very  accurately) 
named  by  these  epithets.  The  terms  present  and  past  do  denote  time,  and 
are  in  a  kind  of  oblique  contradistinction ;  but  how  well  they  apply  to  the 
participles  may  be  seen  by  the  following  texts :  "  God  was  in  Christ,  recon- 
ciling the  world  unto  himself." — "  We  pray  you  in  Christ's  stead,  be  ye  rec- 
onciled to  God."— St.  Paid. 

OBS.  3. — The  participle  in  ing  has,  by  many,  been  called  the  present 
participle.  But  it  is  as  applicable  to  past  or  future,  as  to  present  time; 
otherwise  such  expressions  as,  "I  had  been  icriting," — "  I  shall  be 
inciting"  would  be  solecisms.  It  has  also  been  called  the  active  participle. 
But  it  is  not  always  active,  even  when  derived  from  an  active  verb* 
for  such  expressions  as,  "  The  goods  are  selling" — "  The  ships  are 
now  building"  are  in  use,  and  not  without  authority.  The  distin- 
guishing characteristic  of  this  participle  is,  that  it  denotes  an  unfinished 
and  progressive  state  of  the  being,  action,  or  passion;  it  is  therefore 
properly  denominated  the  IAIPERFECT  participle.  If  the  term  were  applied 


ETYMOLOGY. PARTICIPLES.  83 

with  reference  to  lime,  it  would  be  no  more  objectionable  than  the  word 
present,  and  would  be  equally  supported  by  the  usage  of  the  GreeJc  linguiata. 
This  name  is  approved  by  Murray*  and  adopted  by  several  of  the  more 
recent  grammarians.  [See  the  works  of  Dr.  Crombie,  J.  Grant,  T.  O. 
Churchill,  and  G.  Lewis,  published  in  London.] 

OBS.  4. — The  participle  in  ed,  as  is  mentioned  above,  denotes  a  comple- 
tion of  the  being,  action,  or  passion,  and  should  therefore  be  denomi- 
nated the  PERFECT  participle.  But  this  completion  may  be  spoken  of  as 
present,  past,  or  future,  for  the  participle  itself  has  no  tenses,  and  makes 
no  distinction  of  time,  nor  should  the  name  be  supposed  to  refer  to  the 
perfect  tense.  The  perfect  participle  of  transitive  verbs,  being  used  in 
the  formation  of  passive  verbs,  is  sometimes  called  the  passive  participle. 
It  has  a  passive  signification,  except  when  it  is  used  in  forming  the  com- 
pound tenses  of  the  active  verb.  Hence  the  difference  between  the  sen- 
tences, "I  have  written  a  letter;"  and  "I  have  a  letter  written;" — the 
former  being  equivalent  to  Scripsi  liter  as,  and  the  latter  to  SurJ  mihi  literal 
scripts. 

OBS.  5. — The  third  participle  has  most  generally  been  called  the  com- 
pound or  the  compound  perfect.  The  latter  of  these  terms  seems  to  be 
rather  objectionable  on  account  of  its  length;  and  against  the  former  it 
may  be  urged  that,  in  the  compound  forms  of  conjugation,  the  first  or 
imperfect  participle  is  a  compound.  Dr.  Adam  calls  having  loved  the 
perfect  participle  active,  which  he  says  must  be  rendered  in  Latin  by  the 
pluperfect  of  me  subjunctive,  "as,  he  having  loved,  quum  amavisset;^  but 
it  is  manifest  that  the  perfect  participle  of  the  verb  to  love,  whether  active 
or  passive,  is  the  simple  word  loved,  and  not  this  compound.  Many  writers 
erroneously  represent  the  participle  in  ing  as  always  active,  and  the  partici- 
ple in  ed  as  always  passive ;  and  some,  among  whom  is  Buchanan,  making 
no  distinction  between  the  simple  perfect  loved  and  the  compound  having 
loved,  place  the  latter  with  the  former,  and  call  it  passive  also.  But  if 
this  participle  is  to  be  named  with  reference  to  its  meaning,  there  is  perhaps 
no  better  term  for  it  than  the  epithet  Pluperfect,  which  several  gramma- 
rians have  applied  to  this  use.  Not  because  this  compound  is  really  of 
the  pluperfect  tense,  but  because  it  always  denotes  being,  action,  or  pas- 
sion, that  is,  or  was,  or  will  be,  completed  before  the  doing  or  being  of 
something  else ;  and,  of  course,  when  the  latter  thing  is  represented  as 
past,  the  participle  must  correspond  to  the  pluperfect  tense  of  its  verb; 
as,  "  Having  explained  her  views,  it  was  necessary  she  should  expatiate  on 
the  vanity  and  futility  of  the  enjoyments  promised  by  Pleasure.  — Jamie- 
son's  Rhet.  p.  181.  Here  having  explained  is  equivalent  to  when  she  haa 
explained. 

OBS.  6. — Participles  often  become  adjectives,  and  are  construed  before 
nouns  to  denote  quality.  Words  of  a  participial  form,  may  be  regarded 
a»  adjectives:  1.  When  they  reject  the  idea  of  time,  and  denote  some- 
thing customary  or  habitual,  rather  than  a  transient  act  or  state ;  as,  A 
tying  rogue,  i.  e.  one  addicted  to  lying.  2.  When  they  admit  adverbs  of 
comparison;  as,  A  more  learned  man.  3.  When  they  are  compounded 
with  something  that  does  not  belong  to  the  verb;  as,  unfeeling,  unfelt 

*  "  The  most  unexceptionable  distinction  which  grammarians  make  between 
the  participles,  is,  that  the  one  points  to  the  continuation  of  the.  action,  pas- 
sion, or  state  denoted  by  the  verb ;  and  the  other,  to  the  completion  of  it.  Thus, 
the  ] 
ed: 

Grammar,  8vo.  p.  65.  "  The  first  [participle]  expresses  a  continuation  ;  tfld 
oilier,  a  completion." — Allun's  Gram.  12mo.  London,  1813. 


84  ^  QltAJKMAlL 

Adjectives  arc  generally  placed  before  their  nouns;  parti  rples,  after 
them. 

OBS.  7. — Participles  in  ing  often  become  nouns.  When  preceded  by 
an  article,  an  adjective,  or  a  noun  or  pronoun  of  the  possessive  case,  they 
are  construed  as  nouns,  and  ought  to  have  no  regimen.  A  participle 
immediately  preceded  by  a  preposition,  is  not  converted  into  a  noun,  and 
therefore  retains  its  regimen;  as,  "I  thank  you  for  helping  him"  Partici- 
ples in  this  construction  correspond  with  the  Latin  gerund,  and  are  some- 
times called  gerundives. 

OBS.  8. — To  distinguish  the  participle  from  the  participial  noun,  the 
learner  should  observe  the  following  four  things :  1.  Nouns  take  articles 
and  adjectives  before  them;  participles  do  not.  2.  Nouns  may  govern  the 
possessive  case,  but  not  the  objective ;  participles  may  govern  the  objective 
case,  but  not  the  possessive.  3.  Nouns  may  be  the  subjects  or  objects  of 
verbs ;  participles  cannot.  4.  Participial  nouns  express  actions  as  things ; 
participles  refer  actions  to  their  agents  or  recipients. 

OBS.  9. — To  distinguish  the  perfect  participle  from  the  preterit  of  the  same 
form,  observe  the  sense,  and  see  which  of  the  auxiliary  forms  will  express 
it :  thus,  loved  for  being  laved,  is  a  participle ;  but  loved  for  did  love,  is  a 
preterit  verb. 


EXAMPLES  FOR  PARSING. 

CHAPTER  V.— ETYMOLOGICAL. 

In  t/ie  Fifth  Chapter,  it  is  required  of  the  pupil — to  distinguish 
and  define  the  different  parts  of  speech,  and  the  classes  and  modi- 
fications of  the  articles,  nouns,  adjectives,  pronouns,  verbs,  and 
participles. 

Tki  definitions  to  be  given  in  the  Fifth  Chapter,  are  two  for 
in  article,  six  for  a  noun,  three  for  an  adjective,  six  for  a 
pronoun,  seven  for  a  verb,  two  for  a  participle — and  one  fat 
an  adverb,  a  conjunction,  a  preposition,  or  an  interjection 
Thus  : 

EXAMPLE  PARSED. 

*4  Piety  has  the  purest  delight  attending  it." 

Pie/y  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  neuter 
gender,  and  nominative  case. 

1.  A  noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  or  thing,  that  can  be 

known  or  mentioned. 

2.  A  common  noun  is  the  name  of  a  sort,  kind,  or  class  of  things. 

3.  The  third  person  is  that  which  denotes  the  person  or  thing  merely 

spoken  of. 

4.  The  singular  number  is  that  which  denotes  but  one. 

5.  The  neuter  gender  is  that  which  denotes  things  that  are  neither 

male  nor  female. 

6.  The  nominative  case  is  that  form  or  state  of  a  noun  or  pronoun, 

which  denotes  the  subject  of  a  verb. 

flas  is  an  irregular  active-transitive  verb,   from  have,   Jiad,   having,   had; 
found  in  the  indicative  mood,  present  tense,   third  person,   and 
singular  number. 
1.  A  verb  is  a  word  that  signifies  to  bct  to  act.  or  to  b&  acJed  upon. 


ETYMOLOGY. PARSING.  85 

2.  Ail  irregular  verb  is  a  verb  that  does  not  form  the  preterit  and  the 

perfect  participle  by  assuming  d  or  ed. 

3.  An  active-transitive  verb  is  a  verb  that  expresses  an  action  which  has 

some  person  or  thing  for  its  object. 

4.  The  indicative  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb  which  simply  indicates 

or  declares  a  thing,  or  asks  a  question. 

5.  The  present  tense  is  that  which  expresses  what  now  exists  or  ia 

taking  place. 
G.  The  third  person  is  that  which  denotes  the  person  or  thing  merely 

spoken  of. 
7.  The  singular  number  is  that  which  denotes  but  one. 

The  is  the  definite  article. 

1.  An  article  is  a  word  placed  before  nouns,  to  limit  their  significa- 

tion. 

2.  The  definite  article  is  the,  which  denotes  some  particular  thing  or 

things. 

Purest  is  a  common  adjective,  of  the  superlative  degree ;  compared,  pure, 
purer,  purest. 

1.  An  adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  noun  or  pronoun,  and  generally 

expresses  quality. 

2.  A  common  adjective  is  any  ordinary  epithet,  or  adjective  denoting 

quality  or  situation. 

3.  The  superlative  degree  is  that  which  is  not  exceeded. 

Delight  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  neuter 
gender,  and  objective  case. 

1.  A  noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  or  thing,  that  can  be 

known  or  mentioned. 

2.  A  common  noun  is  the  name  of  a  sort,  kind,  or  class  of  things. 

3.  The  third  person  is  that  which  denotes  the  person  or  thing  merely 

spoken  of. 

4.  The  singular  number  is  that  which  denotes  but  one. 

5.  The  neuter  gender  is  that  which  denotes  things  thai  are  neither 

male  nor  female. 

6.  The  objective  case  is  that  form  or  state  of  a  noun  or  pronoun,  which 

denotes  the  object  of  a  verb,  participle,  or  preposition. 

Attending  is  an  imperfect  participle,  from  the  regular  active-transitive  verb, 
attend,  attended,  attending,  attended. 

1.  A  participle  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb,  participating  the  proper- 

ties of  a  verb  and  an  adjective ;  and  is  generally  formed  by  adding 
ing,  d,  or  ed,  to  the  verb. 

2.  The  imperfect  participle  is  that  which  implies  a  continuance  of  the 

being,  action,  or  passion. 

It  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  neuter  gen- 
der, and  objective  case. 

1.  A  pronoun  is  a  word  used  in  stead  of  a  noun. 

2.  A  personal  pronoun  is  a  pronoun  that  shows,  by  its  form,  of  what 

person  it  is. 

3.  Tne  third  person  is  that  which  denotes  the  person  or  thing  merely 

spoken  of. 

4.  The  singular  number  is  that  which  denotes  but  one. 

5.  The  neuter  gender  is  that  which  denotes  things  that  are  neither 

male  nor  female. 

6.  The  objective  case  is  that  form  or  state  of  a  noun  or  pronoun,  which 

denotes  the  object  of  a  verb,  participle,  or  preposition. 
8 


8G  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

LESSON  I. 

I  repent  Thou  studies!.  He  returns.  She  mourns.  It 
seems.  We  rejoice.  You  appear.  They  approach. 

I  suppose.  Thou  thinkst.  He  sits.  She  comes.  It  rains. 
We  stand.  You  are  known.  They  are  deceived. 

I  was  slighted.  Thau  durst  not  speak.  He  left  the  com- 
pany. She  seemed  afraid.  We  knew  the  man.  You  were 
not  there.  They  held  him  fast. 

LESSON  II. 

I  have  been  sick.  Thou  hast  been  taught.  He  had  not 
found  them.  She  will  not  go.  We  shall  be  preserved.  You 
will  not  meet  him.  They  will  have  been  sold. 

I  saw  the  whole  transaction :  both  parties  disgraced  them- 
selves They  had  a  fierce  dispute. 

Their  friends  have  been  informed  of  all  that  has  occurred, 
and  have  promised  to  repair  the  damage. 

If  the  pupil  has  genius,  application  to  study  will  improve  and 
adorn  it. 

A  soul  inspired  with  the  love  of  truth,  will  summon  all  its 
po  \vers  to  the  pursuit  of  it. 

LESSON  III. 

1  shall  consider  it  a  particular  favour,  if  you  will  send  me 
the  goods  which  were  selected. 

Think  on  me,  when  it  shall  be  well  with  thee. — Bible. 

It  deserves  our  best  skill  to  inquire  into  those  rules  by  which 
we  may  guide  our  judgment. — Murray. 

If  we  do  not  exercise  our  faculties,  they  will  become  im- 
paired.— Allen. 

When  thou  hast  received  a  favour,  remember  it ;  when  thou 
hast  granted  one,  forget  it. 

If  we  have  sauntered  away  our  youth,  we  must  expect  to  be 
ignorant  men. — Blair. 

LESSON  IV. 

Avarice  and  cunning  may  acquire  an  estate  ;  but  they  can- 
not gain  friends* — Murray. 

They  had  acquired  such  a  love  for  learning,  that  no  allure- 
ments "to  indulgence  could  withdraw  them  from  the  pleasure 
of  improving  their  minds. — Allen. 

It  may  have  escaped  his  notice ;  but  such  was  the  fact. 

He  must  indeed  have  been  a  very  extraordinary  man,  if  he 
had  never  felt  any  sentiment  of  this  kind  rising  in  his  breast. 

By  carrying  some  praiseworthy  dispositions  to  excess,  he 
bordered  sometimes  on  what  was  culpable,  and  was  often  be- 
trayed into  actions  that  exposed  him  to  censure. — Robertson. 


ETYMOLOGY. ADVERBS.  87 

The  Scriptures  are  an  authoritative  voice,  reproving,  instruct, 
ing,  and  waging  the  world  ;  and  declaring  the  only  means  or- 
dained and  provided  for  escaping  the  penalties  of  sin. 

LESSON  V. 

Having  discovered  this  transaction,  he  suspected  their  design ; 
and,  by  withdrawing  privately,  eluded  their  craftiness. 

A  spirit  less  vigorous  than  Luther's,  would  have  shrunk  from 
ihe  dangers  which  he  braved  and  surmounted. — Robertson. 

His  natural  intrepidity  did  not  forsake  him  at  the  approach 
of  death.— Id. 

Afflictions  do  not  attack  the  good  man  by  surprise,  and  there- 
fore do  not  overwhelm  him, — Blair. 

Trained  by  divine  grace  to  enjoy  with  moderation  tho  ad- 
vantages of  the  world,  neither  lifted  up  by  success,  nor  enerva- 
ted by  sensuality,  he  meets  the  changes  of  his  lot  without  un 
manly  dejection. — Id. 

LESSON  VI. 

Who  covered  the  earth  with  such  a  pleasing  variety  of  fruits 
and  flowers  1  Who  gave  them  their  delightful  fragrance,  and 
painted  them  with  such  exquisite  colours  ?  Who  causes  the 
same  water  to  whiten  in  the  lily,  that  blushes  in  the  rose  ?  Do 
not  these  things  indicate  a  cause  infinitely  superior  to  any  finite 
being  ? — Maxcy. 

Acquaint  thyself  with  God,  if  thou  wouldst  taste 

His  works.     Admitted  once  to  his  embrace, 

Thou  shalt  perceive,  that  thou  wast  blind  before  : 

Thine  eye  shall  be  instructed  ;  and  thine  heart, 

Made  pure,  shall  relish  with  divine  delight, 

Till  then  unfelt,  what  hands  divine  have  wrought. — Coioper 


OF  THE  ADVERB. 

An  Adverb  is  a  word  added  to  a  verb,  a  participle,  an 
adjective,  or  an  other  adverb  ;  and  generally  expresses 
time,  place,  degree,  or  manner  :  as,  They  are  now  here, 
studying  very  diligently. 

OBS.  1. — Adverbs  briefly  express  what  would  otherwise  require  several 
words;  as,  Now,  for  at  this  time — Here,  for  in  this  place — IVy,  for  ir,  a  high 
degree — Dilijreiiilyt  for  in  an  industrious  manner. 

OBS.  2. — There  are  several  customary  combinations  of  short  words  which 
ore  used  adverbially,  and  which  sonic  grammarians  do  not  analyze  in  pars- 
ing ;  as,  Not  at  all,  at  length,  in  vain.  But  all  words  that  convey  distinct 
ideas,  should  be  taken  separately. 


88  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

CLASSES. 

Adverbs  may  be  reduced  to  four  general  classes :  name- 
ly, adverbs  of  time,  of  place,  of  degree,  and  of  manner 

I.  Adverbs  of  time  are  those  which  answer  to  the  ques- 
tion when  ?  or  how  often  ? 

OBS. — Adverbs  of  time  may  be  subdivided  as  follows : 

1.  Of  time  present;    as,   Now,   yet,  to-day,  presently,  instantly,  imme- 
dmtdy. 

2.  Of  time  past ;  as,  Already,  yesterday,  lately,  recently,  anciently,  hereto- 
fore, hitherto,  since,  ago,  erewhile. 

3.  Of  time  to  come ;  as,  To-morrow,  hereafter,  henceforth,  by-and-by,  soon, 
erelong. 

4.  Of  time  relative ;  as,  When,  then,  before,  after,  while  or  whilst,  till,  un- 
til, seasonably,  betimes,  early,  late. 

5.  Of  time  absolute ;    as,  Always,  ever,  never,  aye,  eternally,  pdrpetuaUy, 
continually. 

G.  Of  time  repeated ;  as,  Often,  oft,  again,  occasionally,  frequently,  somtr 
times,  seldom,  rarely,  now-and-then,  daily,  weekly,  monthly,  yearly,  once,  tvnct, 
thrice,  or  threetimes,  &c. 

7.  Of  the  order  of  time;  as,  First,  secondly,  thirdly,  fourthly,  &c. 

II.  Adverbs  of  place   are  those  which  answer  to  the 
question  where  ?  whither  ?  or  w hence  ? 

OBS. — Adverbs  of  place  may  be  subdivided  as  follows : 

1.  Of  place  in  which ;  as,  Where,  here,  there,  yonder,  above,  below,  about, 
around,  somewhere,  anywhere,  elsewhere,  everywhere,  nowhere,  wherever,  with- 
in, without,  whereabout,  hereabout,  thereabout. 

2.  Of  place  to  which ;    as,    Whither,  hither,  thither,  in,  up,  down,  back, 
forth,  inwards,  upwards,  downwards,  backwards,  forwards. 

3.  Of  place  from  which;  as,  Whence,  hence,  thence,  away,  out. 

4.  Of  the  order  of  place;  as,  JPirst,  secondly,  tJiirdly,  fourthly,  &c. 

III.  Adverbs  of  degree  are  those  which  answer  to  the 
question  how  much? 

OBS. — Adverbs  of  degree  may  be  subdivided  as  follows : 

1.  Of  excess  or  abundance;    as,  Much,  too,  very,  greatly,  far,  beside*! 
chiejly,    principally,    mainly,    generally ;     entirely,  full,  fully,   completely, 
perfectly,    wholly,   totally,   altogether,   all,   quite,   clear,   stark ;    exceedingly, 
excessively,    extravagantly,    intchrably ;     immeasurably,    inconceivably,    in- 
Jinitely. 

2.  Of  equality ;  as,  Enough,  stifficiently,  equally,  so,  as,  even. 

3.  Of  deficiency  or  abatement ;  as,  Lsittlc,  scarcely,  liardly,  merely,  barely, 
only,  but,  partly,  partially,  nearly,  almost. 

4.  Of  quantity ;   as,  How,  (meaning,  in  what  degree,)  however,  howsoever, 
everso,  something,  nothing,  anything,  and  other  nouns  of  quantity  used  ad- 
verbially. 

IV.  Adverbs  of  manner  are  those  which  answer  to  the 
question  how  ?  or  show  Iww  a  subject  is  regarded. 

OBS. — Adverbs  of  manner  may  be  subdivided  as  follows : 
1.  Of  quality;   as,    Well,  HI,  wisely,  foolishly,  justly,  quickly,  and  many 
others  formed  by  adding  ly  to  the  adjectives  of  quality 


ETYMOLOGY. CONJUNCTIONS.  89 

2.  Of  affirmation ;  as,  Yes,  yea,  ay,  verily,  truly,  indeed,  surely ',  certainly, 
doubtless,  undoubtedly,  cartes,  forsooth,  amen. 

3.  Of  negation  ;  as,  No,  nay,  not,  nowise. 

4.  Of  doubt  ;    as,    Perhaps,    Iiaply,    possibly,    perchance,    peradventure, 
may-be. 

5.  Of  mode;  as,   Thus,  so,  how,  somehow,  however,  howsoever,  like,  else, 
itherwist,   across,   together,   apart,   asunder,   namely,   particularly,  necessa- 
nfy. 

6.  Of  cause ;  as,  Why,  wherefore,  therefore. 

CONJUNCTIVE    ADVERBS. 

Ad  rerbs  sometimes  perform  the  office  of  conjunctions,  and 
serve  to  connect  sentences,  as  well  as  to  express  some  circum- 
stance of  time,  place,  degree,  or  manner :  adverbs  that  are  so 
used,  are  called  conjunctive  adverbs. 

OBS.  1. — Conjunctive  adverbs  often  relate  equally  to  two  verbs  in  differ- 
ent clauses,  on  which  account  it  is  the  more  necessary  to  distinguish  them 
from  others ;  as,  "  They  feared  when  they  heard  that  they  were  Romans." — 
Acts,  xvi.  38. 

OBS.  2. — The  following  words  are  the  most  frequently  used  as  conjunc- 
tive adverbs :  after,  again,  also,  as,  before,  besides,  else,  even,  hence,  however^ 
moreover,  nevertheless,  otherwise,  since,  so,  then,  thence,  therefore,  till,  until, 
when,  where,  wherefore,  while  or  whilst. 

OBS.  3. — Adverbs  of  time,  place,  and  manner,  are  generally  connected  witk 
verbs  or  participles ;  those  of  degree  are  more  frequently  prefixed  to  adjec- 
tives or  adverbs. 

OBS.  4. — The  adverbs  here,  there,  and  where,  when  prefixed  to  prepositions, 
have  the  force  of  pronouns :  as,  Hereby,  for  by  this ;  thereby,  for  by  that ; 
whereby,  for  by  which.  Compounds  of  this  kind  are,  however,  commonly 
reckoned  adverbs.  They  are  now  somewhat  antiquated. 

OBS.  5. — The  adverbs  how,  ichen>  whence,  where,  whither,  why,  and  where- 
fore, are  frequently  used  as  interrogates ;  but,  as  such,  they  severally  be- 
long to  the  classes  under  which  they  are  placed. 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Adverbs  have  no  modifications,  except  that  a  few  are 
compared  after  the  manner  of  adjectives ;  as,  #007?,  sooner, 
soonest — often,  oftener,  oftenest — long,  longer,  longest. 

The  following  are  irregularly  compared:  well,  better,  best: 
badly  or  ill,  worse,  worst ;  little,  less,  least ;  much,  more,  most ;  far, 
farther,  farthest ;  forth,  further,  furthest. 

OBS.  1. — Most  adverbs  Equality,  will  admit  the  comparative  adverbs  more 
and  most,  less  and  least,  before  them :  as,  wisely,  more  wisely,  most  wisely ; 
culpably,  less  culpably,  least  culpably.  But  these  should  be  parsed  separately; 
the  degree  of  comparison  belongs  only  to  the  adverb  prefixed. 

OBS.  2. — As  comparison  does  not  belong  to  adverbs  in  general,  it  should 
not  be  mentioned  in  parsing,  except  in  the  case  of  those  few  which  are  va- 
ried by  it 


OF  THE  CONJUNCTION. 

A  Conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  words  or  sen- 

8* 


90  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

tences  in  construction,  and  to  show  the  dependence  of  the 
terms  so  connected  :  as,  Thou  and  lie  are  happy,  because 
you  are  good. 

CLASSES. 

Conjunctions  are  divided  into  two  classes  ;  copulative 
and  disjunctive. 

I.  A  copulative  conjunction  is  a  conjunction  that  de- 
notes an  addition,  a  cause,  or  a  supposition :  as,  He  and  I 
shall  not  dispute  ;  for,  if  he  has  any  choice,  I  shall  readily 
grant  it. 

II.  A  disjunctive  conjunction  is  a  conjunction  that  de- 
notes opposition  of  meaning  :  as,  "  Be  not  overcome  [by] 
evil,  but  overcome  evil  with  good." — Rom.  xii.  21. 

LIST  OF  THE  CONJUNCTIONS. 

The  following  are  the  principal  conjunctions  : 

1.  Copulative;  and,  as,  both,  because, for,  if,  that. 

2.  Disjunctive ;  or,  nor,  either,  neither,  than,  though,  although^ 
yet,  but,  except,  whether,  kst,  unless,  save,  notwithstanding. 


OF  THE  PREPOSITION. 

A  Preposition  is  a  word  used  to  express  some  relation 
of  different  things  or  thoughts  to  each  other,  and  is  gener- 
ally placed  before  a  noun  or  a  pronoun :  as,  The  paper 
lies  before  me  on  the  desk. 

OBS. — Every  relation  of  course  implies  more  than  one  subject,  In  all  cor- 
rect language,  the  grammatical  relation  of  the  words  corresponds  exactly  to 
the  relation  of  the  things  or  ideas  expressed ;  for  the  relation  of  words,  is 
their  dependence  on  each  other  according  to  the  sense.  To  a  preposition,  the 
antecedent  term  of  relation  may  be  a  noun,  an  adjective,  a  pronoun,  a  verb, 
a  participle,  or  an  adverb ;  and  the  subsequent  term  may  be  a  noun,  a  pro- 
noun, an  infinitive  verb,  or  a  participle.  The  learner  must  observe  that  the 
terms  of  relation  are  frequently  transposed. 

LIST  OF  THE  PREPOSITIONS. 

The  following  are  the  principal  prepositions,  arranged  alpha- 
betically :  Above,  about,  aboard,  across,  after,  against,  along,  amid 
or  amidst,  among  or  amongst,  around,  at,  athwart — Before,  behind, 
below-,  beneath,  beside  or  besides,  between  or  betwixt,  beyond,  by — 
Concerning — Down,  during — Except,  excepting — For,  from — In, 
into — Notwithstanding — Of,  off,  on,  out-of,  over,  overthwart — 
Past — Round — Since — Through,  throughout,  till,  to,  touching, 
toward  or  towards — Under,  underneath,  until,  unto,  up,  upon-- 
With,  within,  without. 


ETYMOLOGY. PARSING.  91 

OBS. — The  words  in  the  preceding  list  are  generally  prepositions.  But 
when  any  of  them  are  employed  without  a  subsequent  term  of  relation,  they 
are  adverbs.  For}  when  it  signifies  because,  is  a  conjunction :  without,  when 
us«d  for  unless,  and  notwithsta-nding,  when  placed  before  a  nominative,  are 
rolorred  to  the  same  class. 


OF  THE  INTERJECTION. 

An  Interjection  is  a  word  that  is  uttered  merely  to  indi- 
cate some  strong  or  sudden  emotion  of  the  mind  :  as,  Oh  ! 
alas  I 

OBS. — Of  pure  interjections  but  few  are  admitted  into  books.  As  words 
or  sounds  of  this  kind  serve  rather  to  indicate  feeling  than  to  express 
thought,  they  seldom  have  any  definable  signification.  Their  use  also  is 
so  variable,  that  there  can  be  no  very  accurate  classification  of  them. 
Some  significant  words  properly  belonging  to  other  classes,  are  ranked 
with  interjections,  when  uttered  with  emotion  and  in  an  unconnected 
manner. 

LIST  OF  THE  INTERJECTIONS. 

The  following  are  the  principal  interjections,  arranged  ac- 
cording to  the  emotions  which  they  are  generally  intended  to 
indicate: — 1.  Of  joy;  dgh!  hey!  io! — 2.  Of  sorrow;  ok!  ah! 
alas !  alack !  welladay ! — 3.  Of  wonder  ;  heigh !  ha  !  strange ! — 
4.  Of  wishing  or  earnestness ;  (often  with  a  noun  or  pronoun 
in  a  direct  address  ;)  O  / — 5.  Of  pain  ;  oh !  ah  !  eh  ! — 6.  Of 
contempt ;  fudge  !  pugh  !  poh  !  pshaw !  pish  !  tush  !  tut ! — 
7.  Of  aversion  ;  foh  !  fie  !  off  I  begone!  avaujit! — 8.  Of  calling 
aloud  ;  ho !  soho !  holla ! — 9.  Of  exultation  ;  aha !  huzza  I  hey- 
day!  hurrah! — 10.  Of  laughter;  ha,  ha,  ha. — 11.  Of  saluta- 
tion; welcome!  hail!  all-hail! — 12.  Of  calling  to  attention  ;  lol 
behold!  look!  see!  hark! — 13.  Of  calling  to  silence;  hush! 
hist!  mum! — 14.  Of  surprise  ;  oh!  ha!  hah!  what! — 15.  Of 
languor;  heigh-ho! — 16.  Of  stopping;  avast!  whoh! 

OBS. — Besides  these,  there  are  several  others,  too  often  heard,  which  are 
unworthy  to  be  considered  as  parts  of  a  cultivated  language.  The  frequent 
use  of  interjections,  savours  more  of  thoughtlessness  than  of  sensibility. 


EXAMPLES  FOR  PARSING. 

CHAPTER  VI.— ETYMOLOGICAL. 

In  the  Sixth  Chapter,  it  is  required  of  the  pupil — to  distinguish 
and  define  the  different  parts  of  speech,  and  all  their  classes  and 
modifications. 

The  definitions  to  be  given  in  the  Sixth  Chapter,  are  tivo  for 
an  article,  six  for  a  noun,  three  for  an  adjective,  six  for  a 
pronoun,  seven  for  a  verb,  two  for  a  participle,  two  (ant 


92  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

sometimes  three)  for  an  adverb,  two  for  a  co*  unction,  one  for  a 
preposition,  and  two  for  an  interjection.     Thus: 

EXAMPLE  PARSED. 

"  O !  sooner  shall  the  earth  and  stars  fall  into  chaos  !" 

O!  is  an  interjection,  indicating  earnestness. 

1.  An  interjection  is  a  word  that  is  uttered  merely  to  indicate  some 

strong  or  sudden  emotion  of  the  mind. 

2.  The  interjection  of  wishing  or  earnestness,  is  O. 

Sooner  is  an  adverb  of  time,  of  the  comparative  degree ;    compared,  soon, 
sooner,  soonest. 

1.  An  adverb  is  a  word  added  to  a  verb,  a  participle,  an  adjective,  01 

an  other  adverb ;  and  generally  expresses  time,  place,  degree,  or 
manner. 

2.  Adverbs  of  time  are  those  which  answer  to  the  question  when  ?  01 

how  often  ? 

3.  The  comparative  degree  is  that  which  exceeds  the  positive. 
Shall  is  an  auxiliary  to  fall. 

An  auxiliary  is  a  short  verb  prefixed  to  one  of  the  principal  parts 
of  an  other  verb,  to  express  some  particular  mode  and  time  of  the 
being,  action,  or  passion. 
Th&is  the  definite  article. 

1.  An  article  is  a  word  placed  before  nouns,  to  limit  their  significa* 

tion. 

2.  The  definite  article  is  the,  which  denotes  some  particular  thing  01 

things. 

Earth  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  neuter  gen- 
der, and  nominative  case. 

Z.  A  noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  or  thing,  that  can  be  known 
or  mentioned. 

2.  A  common  noun  is  the  name  of  a  sort,  kind,  or  class  of  things. 

3.  The  third  person  is  that  which  denotes  the  person  or  thing  merely 

spoken  of. 
4    The  singular  number  is  that  which  denotes  but  one. 

5.  The  neuter  gender  is  that  which  denotes  things  that  are  neither  male 

nor  female. 

6.  The  nominative  case  is  that  form  or  state  of  a  noun  or  pronoun,  which 

denotes  the  subject  of  a  verb. 
And  is  a  copulative  conjunction. 

1.  A  conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  words  or  sentences  in 

construction,  and  to  show  the  dependence  of  the  terms  so  con- 
nected. 

2,  A  copulative  conjunction  is  a  conjunction  that  denotes  an  addition, 

a  cause,  or  a  supposition. 

Stars  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person,  plural  number,  neuter  gender, 
and  nominative  case. 

1.  A  noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  or  thing,  that  can  be  known 

or  mentioned. 

2.  A  common  noun  is  the  name  of  a  sort,  kind,  or  class  of  things. 

3.  The  third  person  is  that  which  denotes  the  person  or  thing  merely 

spoken  of. 

4.  The  plural  number  is  that  which  denotes  more  than  one. 

5.  The  neuter  gender  is  that  which  denotes  things  that  are  neither  ; 

nor  female. 


ETYMOLOGY. PARSLNQ.  93 

6.  The  nominative  case  is  that  Ibrm  or  state  of  a  noun  or  pronoun, 

which  denotes  the  subject  of  a  verb. 

S/iall  fall  is  an  irregular  active-intransitive  verb,  from  faU,  fell,  falling, 
fallen;  found  in  the  indicative  mood,  first-future  tense,  third  per- 
son, and  plural  number. 

1.  A  verb  is  a  word  ihat  signifies  to  be,  to  act,  or  to  be  acted  upon. 

2.  An  irregular  verb  is  a  verb  that  does  not  form  the  preterit  and  the 

perfect  participle  by  assuming  d  or  ed. 

3.  An  active-intransitive  verb  is  a  verb  that  expresses  an  action  which 

has  no  person  or  thing  for  its  object. 

4.  The  indicative  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb,  wliich  simply  indi- 

cates or  declares  a  thing,  or  asks  a  question. 

5  The  first-future  tense  is  that  which  expresses  what  will  take  place 
hereafter. 

6.  The  third  person  is  that  which  denotes  the  person  or  thing  merely 

spoken  of. 

7.  The  plural  number  is  that  wliich  denotes  more  than  one. 
Into  is  a  preposition. 

1.  A  preposition  is  a  word  used  to  express  some  relation  of  different 
tilings  or  thoughts  to  each  other,  and  is  generally  placed  before  a 
noun  or  a  pronoun. 

Chaos  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  neuter  gen- 
der, and  objective  case. 

1.  A  noun  is  me  name  of  any  person,  place,  or  thing,  that  can  be 

known  or  mentioned. 

2.  A  common  noun  is  the  name  of  a  sort,  kind,  or  class  of  things. 

3.  The  third  person  is  that  which  denotes  the  person  or  thing  merely 

spoken  of. 

4.  The  singular  number  is  that  which  denotes  but  one 

5.  The  neuter  gender  is  that  which  denotes  things  that  are  neither 

male  nor  female. 

6.  The  objective  case  is  that  form  or  state  of  a  noun  or  pronoun,  which 

denotes  the  object  of  a  verb,  participle,  or  preposition. 

LESSON  I. 

There  is  nothing  which  more  engages  the  affections  of  men, 
than  a  handsome  address  and  graceful  conversation. 

It  is  a  sign  of  great  prudence,  to  be  willing  to  receive  in- 
struction ;  the  most  intelligent  persons  sometimes  stand  in  need 
of  it. 

Good-nature  in  a  companion  is  more  agreeable  than  wit ; 
and  gives  a  certain  air  to  the  countenance,  which  is  more  amia- 
ble than  beauty. 

Men  of  the  noblest  dispositions,  think  themselves  happiest, 
when  others  share  with  them  in  their  happiness. 

Then  near  approaching,  <  Father,  hail !'  he  cried ; 

And,  i  Hail,  my  son !'  the  reverend  sire  replied. — Parnel. 

LESSON  II. 

Ingratitude  is  a  crime  so  shameful,  that  no  on.e  has  ever  yet 
been  found,  who  would  acknowledge  himself  guilty  of  it 

True  greatness  of  mind  is  to  be  maintained  only  by  Chris- 
tian principles 


94  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Small  transgressions  become  great  by  frequent  repetition ; 
as  small  expenses,  multiplied,  insensibly  waste  a  large  revenue. 
A  talkative  fellow  applying  to  Isocrates  for  instruction,  the 
orator  asked  him  double  his  usual  price  ; — c  Because/  said  he, 
4 1  must  both  teach  him  to  speak,  and  to  hold  his  tongue.' 
Hark !  the  bee  winds  htr  small  but  mellow  horn, 
Blithe  to  salute  the  sunny  smile  of  morn. — Rogers. 

LESSON  III. 

Do  not  hurt  yourselves  or  others  by  the  pursuit  of  pleasure. 
Consult  your  whole  nature.  Consider  yourselves  not  only  as 
sensitive,  but  as  rational  beings ;  not  only  as  rational,  but  social ; 
not  only  as  social,  but  immortal. 

For  what  end  has  the  lavish  hand  of  Providence  diffused  in 
numerable  objects  of  delight,  but  that  all  might  rejoice  in  the 
privilege  of  existence,  and  be  filled  with  gratitude  to  the  benefi- 
cent author  of  it  ? — Carter. 

0  let  not  thy  heart  despise  me !  thou  whom  experience  has 
not  taught  that  it  is  misery  to  lose  that  which  it  is  not  happi- 
ness to  possess. — Dr.  Johnson. 

Let  never  day  nor  night  unhallow'd  pass, 

But  still  remember  what  the  Lord  hath  done. — Sheik. 

LESSON  IV. 

Man  surely  has  some  latent  sense  for  which  this  place  affords 
no  gratification,  or  he  has  some  desires  distinct  from  sense, 
which  must  be  satisfied  before  he  can  be  happy. — Dr.  Johnson. 

1  have  found  a  man  who  can  teach  all  that  is  necessary  to 
be  known  ;  who,  from  the  unshaken  throne  of  rational  fortitude, 
looks  clown  on  the  scenes  of  life  changing*  beneath  him,     He 
speaks,  and  attention  watches  his  lips.     He  reasons,  and  con- 
viction closes  his  periods. — Id. 

Ignorance,  when  it  is  voluntary,  is  criminal ;  and  he  may 
properly  be  charged  with  evil,  who  refused  to  learn  how  he 
might  prevent  it. — Id. 

Ha !  at  the  gates  what  grisly  forms  appear ! 

What  dismal  shrieks  of  laughter  wound  the  ear ! — Merry. 

LESSON  V. 

When  we  act  according  to  our  duty,  we  commit  the  event  to 
him  by  whose  laws  our  actions  are  governed,  and  who  will 
suffer  none  to  be  finally  punished  for  obedience. — Dr.  Johnson. 

When,  in  prospect  of  some  good,  whether  natural  or  moral, 
we  break  the  rules  prescribed  us,  we  withdraw  from  the  direc- 
tion of  superior  wisdom,  and  take  all  consequences  upon  our- 
selves.— Id. 

Man  cannot  so  far  know  the  connexion  of  causes  and  events, 
as  that  he  may  venture  to  do  wrong  in  order  to  do  right. — Id 


ETYMOLOGY. QUESTIONS.  95 

When  we  pursue  our  end  by  lawful  means,  we  may  always 
console  our  miscarriage  by  the  hope  of  future  recompense. — Id, 
Ah,  that  deceit  should  steal  such  gentle  shapes, 
And  with  a  yirtuous  visor  hide  deep  vice  ! — Shak. 

LESSON  VI. 

How  comfortless  is  the  sorrow  of  him  who  feels  at  once  the 
pangs  of  guilt,  and  the  vexation  of  calamity  which  guilt  has 
Drought  upon  him ! — Dr.  Johnson. 

He  who  will  determine  against  that  which  he  knows,  be- 
cause there  may  be  something  which  he  knows  not,  is  not  to 
be  admitted  among  reasonable  beings. — Id. 

To  live  without  feeling  or  exciting  sympathy,  to  be  fortunate 
without  adding  to  the  felicity  of  others,  or  afflicted  without 
tasting  the  balm  of  pity,  is  a  state  more  gloomy  than  solitude ; 
it  is  not  retreat,  but  exclusion  from  mankind. — Id. 
O  happy  peasant !  Oh  unhappy  bard ! 
His  the  mere  tinsel,  hers  the  rich  reward. — Cowper. 

LESSON  VII. 

It  is  the  care  of  a  very  great  part  of  mankind,  to  conceal  their 
indigence  from  the  rest ;  they  support  themselves  by  temporary 
expedients,  and  every  day  is  lost  in  contriving  for  the  morrow. 
— Dr.  Johnson. 

Pride  is  seldom  delicate,  it  will  please  itself  with  very  mean 
advantages ;  and  envy  feels  not  its  own  happiness,  but  when  it 
may  be  compared  with  the  misery  of  others. — Id. 

This  same  grace  is  spoken  of  as  the  gift  of  God,  as  coming 
by  Jesus  Christ,  as  reigning,  as  abounding,  as  operating. — 
Berkley. 

If  I  were  not  a  preacher,  I  know  of  no  profession  on  earth  of 
which  I  should  be  fonder  than  of  that  of  a  preceptor. — Luthzr 
Nothing  is  proof  against  the  general  curse 
Of  vanity,  that  seizes  all  below. 
The  only  amaranthine  flower  on  earth 
Is  virtue ;  the  only  lasting  treasure,  truth. — Cowper. 


QUESTIONS  ON  ETYMOLOGY. 

LESSON   I. — PARTS    OF  SPEECH. 

Of  what  does  Etymology  treat! 
How  many  and  what  are  the  parts  of  speech  1 
What  is  an  article 7 — Which  are  the  articles? 
What  is  a  noun  1 — What  examples  are  given  ? 
What  is  an  adjective'? — How  is  this  exemplified 7 
What  is  a  pronoun? — How  is  this  exemplified? 
What  is  a  verb? — How  is  this  exemplified? 
What  is  a  participle  ? — How  is  this  exemplified  ? 


96  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR, 

What  is  an  adverb  1 — How  is  this  exemplified  1 
What  is  a  conjunction  ? — How  is  this  exemplified  ? 
What  is  a  preposition  1 — How  is  this  exemplified  ? 
What  is  an  interjection  ? — What  examples  are  given  ? 

LESSON   II. — PARSING. 

What  is  Parsing? 

What  is  a  perfect  definition? — What  is  a  rule  of  grammar  ? 

What  is  required  of  the  pupil  in  the  FIRST  CHAPTER  for  parsing  1 

How  many  definitions  are  here  to  be  given  for  each  part  of  speech? 

How  is  the  following  example  parsed  ?     "  The  patient  ox  submita  to  the 
yoke,  and  meekly  performs  the  labour  required  of  him." 
[Now  parse,  in  like  manner,  the  three  lessons  of  the  First  Chapter.} 

LESSON   III.— ARTICLES. 

What  is  an  ARTICLE  1 — Mention  the  articles. 

Are  an  and  a  different  articles,  or  the  same  1 

When  is  an  used  ?  and  what  are  the  examples  ? 

When  is  a  used  1  and  what  are  the  examples 

What  form  of  the  article  do  the  sounds  of  w  and  y  require  7 

Repeat  the  alphabet,  with  an  or  a  before  the  name  of  each  letter. 

Name  the  parts  of  speech,  with  an  or  a  before  each  name. 

How  are  the  two  articles  distinguished  in  grammar  1 

Which  is  the  definite  article,  and  what  does  it  denote  1 

Which  is  the  indefinite  article,  and  what  does  it  denote  1 

What  modifications  have  the  articles  ? 

LESSON   IV. — NOUNS. 

What  is  a  NOUN  ? — Can  you  give  some  examples  1 

Into  what  general  classes  are  nouns  divided  1 

What  is  a  proper  noun  1 — a  common  noun  1 

What  particular  classes  are  included  among  common  nouns? 

What  is  a  collective  noun? — an  abstract  noun? — a  verbal  or  participud 

noun? 

What  modifications  have  nouns  ? 
What  are  persons  in  grammar  ? 

How  many  persons  are  there,  and  what  are  they  called  ? 
What  is  thejirst  person? — the  second  person ? — the  third  person  1 
What  are  Numbers  in  grammar? 

How  many  numbers  are  there,  and  what  are  they  called? 
What  is  the  singular  number  ? — the  plural  number  ? 
How  is  the  plural  number  of  nouns  regularly  formed  ? 
What  are  the  rules  for  adding  5  and  es  to  form  the  plural  ? 

LESSON    V. — NOUNS. 

What  are  Genders  in  grammar  ? 

How  many  genders  are  there,  and  what  are  they  called? 
What  is   the  masculine  gender  ? — the  feminine  gender  ?   the  neuter  gen- 
der? 

What  are  Cases  in  grammar? 

How  many  cases  are  there,  and  what  are  they  called  ? 
What  is  the  nominative  case  ? 
What  is  the  subject  of  a  verb? 
What  is  the  possessive  case  ? 
How  is  the  possessive  case  of  nouns  formed  ? 
What  is  the  objective  case  ? 

What  is  the  object  of  a  verb,  participle,  or  preposition  1 
What  is  the  declension  of  a  noun  ? 
How  do  you  decline  the  mauns  friend,  man^fox, 


ETYMOLOGY.— ^UESTIONb.  97 

LESSON   VI. — PARSING. 

What  'IB  required  of  the  pupil  in  the  SECOND  CHAPTER  for  parsing! 

How  many  definitions  are  nere  to  be  given  for  each  part  of  speech  1 

How  is  the  following  example  parsed  1     "  James  is  a  lad  of  uncommon 

Ulents." 

[Now  parse,  in  like  manner,  the  two  lessons  of  the  Second  Chapter.] 

LESSON   VII. — ADJECTIVES. 

What  is  an  ADJECTIVE  ! — How  is  this  exemplified  1 

Into  what  <riasses  may  adjectives  be  divided  1 

What  is  a  common  adjective  1 — a  proper  adjective? — a  numeral  adjective! 
— a  pronominal  adjective  1 — a  participial  adjective  1 — a  compound  ad- 
jective 1 

What  modifications  have  adjectives  1 

What  is  Comparison  in  grammar  ! 

How  many,  and  what  are  the  degrees  of  comparison  1 

What  is  the  positive  degree  7 — the  comparative  degree  1 — the  superlative  de- 
gree1? 

What  adjectives  cannot  be  compared  1 

What  adjectives  are  compared  by  means  of  adverbe  1 

How  are  adjectives  regularly  compared  1 — Compare  great,  wide,  and  hot. 

To  what  adjectives  are  er  and  est  applicable  ! 

Is  there  any  other  mode  of  expressing  the  degrees! 

How  are  the  degrees  of  diminution  expressed! 

How  do  you  compare  good,  bad,  or  HI,  little,  much,  and  many  ? 

How  do  you  compare  far,  near,  fore,  hind,  in,  out,  up,  low,  and  late? 

LESSON   VIII. — PARSING. 

W^hat  is  required  of  the  pupil  in  the  THIRD  CHAPTER  for  parsing! 

How  many  definitions  are  here  to  be  given  for  each  part  of  speech  1 

How  is  the  following  example  parsed!  "  I  prefer  the  shortest  course,  though 

some  other  may  be  less  intricate." 

[Now  parse,  in  like  manner,  the  two  lessons  of  the  Third  Chapter.] 

LESSON   IX. — PRONOUNS. 

What  is  a  PRONOUN  ! — Give  the  example. 

How  are  pronouns  divided  ! 

What  is  a  personal  pronoun  1 — Tell  the  personal  pronouns. 

What  is  a  relative  pronoun  7 — Tell  the  relative  pronouns. 

WThat  peculiarity  has  the  relative  wliat  ? 

What  is  an  interrogative  pronoun  ! — Tell  the  interrogatives. 

What  modifications  have  pronouns  1 

What  is  the  declension  ot  a  pronoun  1 

How  do  you  decline  the  pronouns  /,  thou,  he,  she,  and  it  ? 

What  is  said  of  the  compound  personal  pronouns  1 

How  do  you  decline  who,  which,  what,  and  that  ? 

How  do  you  decline  the  compound  relative  pronouns  ? 

LESSON   X. — PARSING. 

What  is  required  of  the  pupil  in  the  FOURTH  CHAPTER  for  parsing  1 
How  many  definitions  the  nere  to  be  given  for  each  part  of  speech  1 
How  is  the  following  example  parsed!     "  She  met  tnern." 
[Now  parse,  in  like  manner,  the  three  lessons  of  the  Fourth  Chapter. \ 

LESSON   XI. — VERBS. 

What  is  a  VERB  7 — What  are  the  examples  ! 

How  are  verbs  divided  with  respect  to  their  form  1 

What  ia  a  regular  verb  ! — an  irregular  verb  1 

How  are  verbs  divided  vrith  respect  to  their  signification  1 


98  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

What  is  an  active-transitive  verb  ? — an  active^intransitivt  verb  ? — a  pcmnv* 

verb  1 — a  neuter  verb  7 
What  modifications  have  verbs  ? 
What  are  Moods  in  grammar  1 

How  many  moods  are  there,  and  what  are  they  called  1 
WThat  is  the  infinitive  mood  1 — the  indicative  mood  1 — tne  potential  mood  t— 

the  subjunctive  mood  ? — the  imperative  mood  1 

LESSON   XII. — VERBS. 

What  are  Tenses  in  grammar  ? 

How  many  tenses  are  there,  and  what  are  they  called? 

What  is  the  present  tense  7— the  imperfect  tense  1 — the  perfect  tense  1 — tk.8 

pluperfect  tense  1 — the  first-future  tense  1 — the  secondfuturc  tense  1 
What  are  the  Person  and  Number  of  a  verb  1 
How  many  persons  and  numbers  belong  to  verbs  1 
How  are  the  second  and  third  persons  singular  formed  1  , 
What  is  the  conjugation  of  a  verb! 

What  are  the  principal  parts  in  the  conjugation  of  a  verb! 
Wrhat  is  a  verb  called  which  wants  some  of  these  parts  ? 
What  is  an  auxiliary  in  grammar  1 
What  verbs  are  used  as  auxiliaries  ? 

LESSON   XIII. — VERBS. 

What  is  the  simplest  form  of  an  English  conjugation  ? 

WThat  is  the  first  example  of  conjugation  1 

What  are  the  principal  parts  of  the  verb  LOVE  1 

How  many  and  what  tenses  has  the  infinitive  mood  ? — the  indicative  7  the 
potential? — the  subjunctive? — the  imperative? 

What  is  the  verb  LOVE  in  the  Infinitive,  present? — perfect? — Indicative, 
present  ? — imperfect  ? — perfect  ? — pluperfect  ? — first-future  1 — second-fu- 
ture ? — Potential  present  ?—  imperfect  1 — perfect  1 — plunerfect  ? — Sub- 
junctive, present?— imperfect? — Imperative,  present?  What  are  its  par- 
ticiples ? 

LESSON   XIV.— VERBS. 

What  is  the  syn-  psis  of  the  verb  LOVE,  in  the  first  person  singular  ? — sec- 
ond person  singular? — third  person  singular? — first  person  plural? — 
second  persoi.  plural  ? — third  person  plural  ? 

LESSON   XV. — VERBS. 

What  is  the  second  example  of  conjugation  ? 
How  is  the  verb  SEE  conjugated  throughout? 

How  do  y'M  form  a  synopsis  of  the  verb  see,  with  the  pronoun  I?  thou  ? 
he?  we?  you?  they? 

LESSON  XVI. — VERBS. 

What  is  the  third  example  of  conjugate  »t-? 
How  is  the  verb  BE  conjugated  throughoo  ? 

How  do  you  form  a  synopsis  of  the  verb  be,  with  the  nominative  I?  thou? 
he?  we?  you?  they?  the  man?  the  men? 

LESSON   XVII. — VERBS. 

How  else  may  active  and  neuter  verbs  be  conjugated  1 
WThat  peculiar  meaning  does  this  form  convey  ? 
What  is  the  fourth  example  of  conjugation? 
How  is  the  verb  READ  conjugated  in  the  compound  form  1 
How  do  you  form  a  synopsis  of  the  verb  be  reading,  with  the  nominative  I? 
thou?  he?  we?  you?  they?  the  boy?  the  boys? 

LESSON  ZTIII. — V1R1S. 

Uow  are  passive  verbs  formed? 


ETYMOLOGY. QUEST  ONS.  99 

What  is  the  fifth  example  of  conjugation  1 
How  is  the  passive  verb  BE  LOVED,  conjugated  throughout  1 
How  do  you  form  a  synopsis  of  the  verb  be  loved,  with  the  nominative  11 
thou?  he?  ice?  you?  they?  tlie  child?  the  children? 

LESSON    XIX. — VERBS. 

How  is  a  verb  conjugated  negatively  ? 

How  is  the  form  of  negation  exemplified  7 

How  is  a  verb  conjugated  interrogatively? 

How  is  the  form  of  question  exemplified  1 

How  is  a  verb  conjugated  interrogatively  and  negatively? 

How  is  the  form  of  negative  question  exemplified  7 

LESSON  XX.. — VERBS. 

What  is  an  irregular  verb  7 

How  many  regular  verbs  are  there  7 — and  whence  are  they  derived  7 

How  does  the  list  exhibit  the  irregular  verbs  7 

What  are  the  principal  parts  of  the  following  verbs : — Abide — Be,  bear, 
beat,  begin,  bend,  beseech,  bid,  bind,  bite,  bleed,  blow,  break,  breed, 
bring,  build,  burst,  buy — Cast,  catch,  chide,  choose,  cleave,  cling,  clothe, 
come,  cost,  crow,  creep,  cut— Dare,  deal,  dig,  do,  draw,  dream,  drive,  drink, 
dwell  7 

LESSON   XXI. — VERBS. 

What  are  the  principal  parts  of  the  following  verbs : — Eat — Pall,  feed,  feel, 
fight,  find,  flee,  fling,  fly,  forsake,  freeze— Get,  gild,  gird,  give,  go,  grave, 

frind,  grow — Hang,  have,  hear,  heave,  hew,  hide,  hit,  hold,  hurt — -Keep, 
neel,  knit,  know — Lade,  lay,  lean,  lead,  leave,  lend,  let,  lie,  light,  lose 
—Make,  mean,  meet,  mow — Pay,  put 7 

DESSON   XXII. — rVERBS. 

What  are  the  principal  parts  of  the  following  verbs : — Quit — Read,  reave, 
rend,  rid,  ride,  ring,  rise,  rive,  run — Saw,  say,  see,  seek,  seethe,  sell,  send, 
set,  shake,  shave,  shear,  shed,  shine,  shoe,  show,  shoot,  shut,  shred,  shrink, 
sing,  sink,  sit,  slay,  sleep,  slide,  sling,  slink,  slit,  smite,  sow,  speak,  speed, 
•pend,  spill,  spin,  spit,  split,  spread,  spring,  stand  7 

LESSON   XXIII. — VERBS. 

What  are  the  principal  parts  of  the  following  verbs : — Steal,  stick,  sting,  stride, 
•trike,  string,  strive,  strow,  swear,  sweat,  sweep,  swell,  swim,  swing — 
Take,  teach,  tear,  tell,  think,  thrive,  throw,  thrust,  tread — Wake,  wear, 
weave,  weep,  win,  wind,  wont,  work,  wring,  write  7 

What  is  a  defective  verb  7 — What  tenses  do  such  verbs  lack  7 

What  verbs  are  defective  7  and  wherein  are  they  so  7 

LESSON   XXIV. — PARTICIPLES. 

What  is  a  PARTICIPLE  7  and  how  is  it  generally  formed  7 
How  many  kinds  of  participles  are  there  7  and  what  are  they  called  7 
How  is  the  imperfect  participle  defined  7  and  what  are  the  examples  7 
How  is  the  perfect  participle  defined  7  and  what  are  the  examples  7 
How  is  the  pluperfect  participle  defined  7  and  what  are  the  examples  7 
How  is  the  first  or  imperfect  participle  formed  7 
How  is  the  second  or  perfect  participle  formed  7 
How  is  the  third  or  pluperfect  participle  formed  7 

What  are  the  participles  of  the  following  verbs,  according  to  the  simplest 
form  of  conjugation :  Repeat,  study,  return,  mourn,  seem,  rejoice  appear, 
approach,  suppose,  think,  set,  come,  rain,  stand,  know,  deceive  7 

LESSON   XXV. — PARSING. 

What  is  required  of  the  pupil  in  the  FIFTH  CHAPTER  for  parsing  1 


100  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

How  many  definitions  are  here  to  be  given  for  each  part  of  speech  1 

How  is  the  following  example  parsed!  "  Piety  has  the  purest  delight  attend* 

ing  it?" 
[Now  parse,  in  like  manner,  the  six  lessons  of  the  Fifth  Chapter.] 

LESSON   XXVI. — ADVERBS   AND   CONJUNCTIONS. 

What  is  an  ADVERB  1 — What  is  the  example  1 

To  what  classes  may  adverbs  be  reduced  t 

WThich  are  adverbs  of  time? — of  place? — of  degree? — of  manntr? 

What  are  conjunctive  adverbs  ? 

Have  adverbs  any  modifications? 

Compare  well,  badly  or  ill,  little,  much,  far  and  forth. 

What  is  a  CONJUNCTION? — How  are  conjunctions  divided? 

What  is  a  copulative  conjunction  ? — a  disjunctive  conjunction? 

What  are  the  copulative  conjunctions? — the  disjunctive? 

LESSON   XXVII. — PREPOSITIONS   AND    INTERJECTIONS. 

What  is  a  PREPOSITION ? — How  are  the  prepositions  arranged? 

What  are  the  prepositions  beginning  with  a  ? — with  b  ? — with  c  ? — with  d  1 
—withe?— with/?— with  i  ?— with  n  ?— with  o  ?— with  p  ?— with  r?— 
with  s  ?— with  t  ? — with  u  ? — with  w  ? 

What  is  an  INTERJECTION? — How  are  the  interjections  arranged? 

WThat  are  the  interjections  of  joy  I — of  sorrow  ? — of  wonder  ?— of  wishing 
or  earnestness  ? — of  pain  ? — of  contempt  ? — of  aversion  ? — of  calling  aloudl 
— of  exultation  ? — of  laughter? — of  salutation  ? — of  calling  to  attention? — 
of  calling  to  s;)ence  ? — of  surprise  ? — of  languor  ? — of  stopping  ? 

LESSON  XXVIII. — PARSING. 

What  is  required  of  the  pupil  in  the  SIXTH  CHAPTER  for  parsing? 

How  many  definitions  are  here  to  be  given  for  each  part  of  speech? 

How  is  the  following  example  parsed?  "O!  sooner  shall  the  earth  and  stars 

fall  into  chaos  ?" 

[Now  parse,  in  like  manner,  the  seven  lessons  of  the  Sixth  Chapter.] 

EXERCISES  Ilf  ETYMOLOGY. 

f^JT  [When  the  pupil  has  become  familiar  with  the  different  parts  gf 
speech,  and  their  classes  and  modifications,  and  has  been  sufficiently  exer- 
cised in  etymological  parsing,  he  should  write  out  the  following  exercises.] 

EXERCISE  L— ARTICLES. 

1.  Prefix  the  definite  article  to  the  following  nouns:  path, 
paths;  loss,  losses;  name,  names;  page,  pages;  want,  wants; 
doubt,  doubts ;  votary,  votaries. 

2.  Prefix  the  indefinite  article  to  the  following  nouns :  age, 
error,  idea,  omen,  urn,  arch,  bird,  cage,  dream,  empire,  farm, 
grain,  horse,  idol,  jay,  king,  lady,  man,  novice,  opinion,  pony, 
quail,  raven,  sample,  trade,  uncle,  vessel,  window,  youth,  zone, 
whirlwind,  union,  onion,  unit,  eagle,  house,  honour,  hour,  her- 
ald, habitation,  hospital,  harper,  harpoon,  ewer,  eye,  humour. 

3.  Insert  the  definite  article  rightly  in  the  following  phrases  : 
George  second — fair  appearance — part  first — reasons  most  ob- 
vious— good  man — wide  circle — man  of  honour — man  of  world 
— old  books — common  people — same  person — smaller  piece — 
rich  and  poor— first  and  last — all  time — great  excess — nint 


ETYMf/LOGY, — EXEF.OTSRS.  1 0 1 

•        /•*' 

muses — how  rich  reward — so  small  number — all  ancient  wri- 
ters— in  nature  of  things — much  better  course. 

4.  Insert  the  indefinite  article  rightly  in  each  of  the  follow- 
ing phrases :  new  name — very  quick  motion — other  sheep — 
such  power — what  instance — great  weight — such  worthy  cause 
— too  great  difference — high  honour — humble  station — univer- 
sal law — what  strange  event — so  deep  interest — as  firm  hope 
— so  great  wit — humorous  story — such  person — few  dollars- 
little  reflection. 

EXERCISE  II— NOUNS. 

1.  Write  the  plural  of  the  following  nouns:  town,  country, 
case,  pin,  needle,  harp,  pen,  sex,  rush,  arch,  marsh,  monarch, 
blemish,   distich,  princess,  gas,  bias,  stigma,  wo,  grotto,  folio, 
punctilio,   ally,   duty,  toy,  money,  entry,  valley,  volley,  half, 
dwarf,  strife,  knife,  roof,  muff,  staff,  chief,  sheaf,  mouse,  penny, 
oi,  foot,  erratum,  axis,  thesis,  criterion,  bolus,  rebus,  son-m-law, 
pailful,  man-servant. 

2.  Write  the  feminines  corresponding  to  the  following  nouns : 
earl,  friar,  stag,  lord,  duke,  marquis,  hero,  executor,  nephew, 
heir,  actor,  enchanter,  hunter,  prince,  traitor,  lion,  arbiter,  tutor, 
songster,  abbot,  master,  uncle,  widower,  son,  landgrave. 

3.  Write  the  possessive  case  singular  of  the  following  nouns : 
table,  leaf,  boy,  torch,  park,  porch,  portico,  lynx,  calf,  sheep, 
wolf,  echo,  folly,  cavern,  father-in-law,  court-martial. 

4.  Write  the  possessive  case,  plural,  of  the  following  nouns : 
priest,  tutor,  scholar,  mountain,  city,  courtier,  judge,  citizen, 
woman,  servant,  writer,  grandmother. 

5.  Write  the  possessive  case,  both  singular  and  plural,  of  the 
following  nouns :  body,  fancy,  lady,  attorney,  negro,  nuncio, 
life,  brother,  deer,  child,  wife,  goose,  beau,  envoy,  distaff,  collo- 
quy, hero,  thief,  wretch. 

EXERCISE  III.— ADJECTIVES. 

1.  Annex  a  suitable  noun  to  each  of  the  following  adjectives, 
without  repeating  any  word :  good,  great,  tall,  wise,  strong, 
dark,  dangerous,  dismal,  drowsy,  twenty,  true,  difficult,  pale, 
livid,  ripe,  delicious,  stormy,  rainy,  convenient,  heavy.     Thus — 
good  pens,  &c. 

2.  Prefix  a  suitable  adjective  to  each  of  the  following  nouna. 
without  repeating  any  word  :  man,  son,  merchant,  work,  fence 
fear,  poverty,  picture,  prince,  delay,  suspense,  devices,  follies, 
actions.     Thus — vnse  man,  &c. 

3.  Compare  the  following  adjectives .  black,  bright,  short, 
white,  old,  high,  wet,  big,  few,  lovely,  dry,  fat,  good,  bad,  little, 
much,  many,  far. 

4.  Express  the  degrees  of  the  following  qualities,  by  the  corn- 

s' 


102  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

parative  adverbs  of  increase :  delig  htful,  comfortable,  agreeable, 
pleasant,  fortunate,  valuable,  wretched,  vivid,  timid,  poignant, 
excellent. 

5.  Express  the  degrees  of  the  f  llowing  qualities  by  the  con* 
parative  adverbs  of  diminution:  objectionable,  formidable,  for- 
cible, comely,  pleasing,  obvious,  censurable,  prudent. 

EXERCISE  IV.— PRONOUNS. 

1.  Write  the  nominative  p'ural  of  the  following  pronouns: 
I,  thou,  he,  she,  it,  who,  whica,  what,  that. 

2.  Write  the  declension  ot  the  following  pronouns :  myself, 
thyself,  himself,  herself,  itself,  whosoever. 

3.  Write  the  following  words  in  their  customary  form  :  her^s, 
it's,  our's,  your's,  their's,  who's,  meself,  hisself,  theirselves. 

4.  Write  the  objective  singular  of  all  the  simple  pronouns. 

5.  Write  the  objective  plural  of  all  the  simple  pronouns. 

EXERCISE  V.— VERBS. 

1.  Write  the  four  principal  parts  of  each  of  the  following 
verbs  :  slip,  thrill,  caress,  force,  release,  crop,  try,  die,  obey,  de- 
lay, destroy,  deny,  buy,  come,  do,  feed,  lie,  say,  'huzza. 

2.  Write  the  following  preterits  in  their  appropriate  form : 
exprest,  stript,  learnt,  dropt,  jumpt,  prest,  topt,  whipt,  spoilt, 
propt,  fixt,  staid,  past,  crost,  stept,  distrest,  gusht,  confest,  snapt, 
blest,  shipt,  kist,  discust,  lackt. 

3.  Write  the  following  verbs  in  the  indicative  mood,  present 
tense,  second  person  singular  :  move,  strive,  please,  reach,  con- 
fess, fix,  deny,  survive,  know,  go,  outdo,  close,  lose,  pursue. 

4.  Write  the  following  verbs  in  the  indicative  mood,  present 
tense,  third  person  singular :  leave,  seem,  search,  impeach,  fear, 
redress,  comply,  bestow,  do,  woo,  sue,  view,  allure,  rely,  beset, 
release,  be,  bias. 

5.  Write  the  following  verbs  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  pre- 
sent tense,  in  the  three  persons  singular :  serve,  shun,  turn, 
learn,  find,  wish,  throw,  dream,  possess,  detest,  disarm,  allow, 
pretend. 

EXERCISE  VI— VERBS. 

1.  Write  a  synopsis  of  the  first  person  singular  of  the  active 
verb  amuse,  conjugated  affirmatively. 

2. .  Write  a  synopsis  of  the  second  person  singular  of  the 
neuter  verb  sit,  conjugated  affirmatively  in  the  solemn  style. 

3.  Write  a  synopsis  of  the  third  person  singular  of  the  active 
verb  speak,  conjugated  affirmatively  in  the  compound  form. 

4.  Write  a  synopsis  of  the  first  person  plural  of  the  passive 
verb  be  reduced,  conjugated  affirmatively. 

5.  Write  a  synopsis  of  the  second  person  plural  of  the  active 
verb  lose,  conjugated  negatively. 


ETYMOLOGY. EXERCISES.  103 

6.  Write  a  synopsis  of  the  third  person  plural  of  the  neuter 
7erb  stand,  conjugated  interrogatively. 

7.  Write  a  synopsis  of  the  first  person  singular  of  the  active 
rerb  derive,  conjugated  interrogatively  and  negatively. 

EXERCISE  VII.— PARTICIPLES. 

1.  Write  the  simple  imperfect  participles  of  the  following 
verbs :  belong,  provoke,  degrade,  impress,  fly,  do,  survey,  vie^ 
coo,  let,  hit,  put,  defer,  differ,  remember. 

2.  Write  the  perfect  participles  of  the  following  verbs :  turn, 
burn,  learn,  deem,  crowd,  choose,  draw,  hear,  lend,  sweep,  tear, 
thrust,  steal,  write,  delay,  imply,  exist. 

3.  Write  the  pluperfect  participles  of  the  following  verbs : 
depend  dare,  deny,  value,  forsake,  bear,  set,  sit,  lay,  mix,  speak, 
sleep,  allot. 

4.  Write  the  following  participles  in  their  appropriate  form  : 
dipt,  deckt,  markt,  equipt,   ingulft,   embarrast,   astonisht,  tost, 
embost,  absorpt,  attackt,  gasht,  soakt,  hackt,  blest,  curst. 

5.  Write  the  regular  participles  which  are  now  generally 
preferred  to  the  following  irregular  ones  :  clad,  graven,  hoven, 
hewn,  knelt,  leant,  lit,  mown,  quit,  riven,  sawn,  sodden,  shaven, 
shorn,  sown,  strown,  swollen,  thriven,  wrought. 

6.  Write  the  irregular  participles  which  are  commonly  pre- 
ferred to  the  following  regular  ones :  bended,  builded,  catched, 
creeped,  dealed,  digged,  dreamed,  dwelled,  gilded,  girded,  hang- 
ed,  knitted,   laded,   meaned,   reaved,   shined,  slitted,  spirited, 
stringed,  strived,  weeped,  wonted,  wringed. 

EXERCISE  VIIL— ADVERBS,  &c. 

1.  Compare  the  following  adverbs  :  soon,  often,  well,  badly 
or  ill,  little,  much,  far,  forth. 

2.  Prefix  the  comparative  adverbs  of  increase  to  each  of  the 
following  aJverbs  :  purely,  fairly,  sweetly,  earnestly,  patiently, 
completely,  fortunately,  profitably. 

3.  Prefix  the  comparative  adverbs  of  diminution  to  the  fol- 
lowing  adverbs'  secretly,   slily,  liberally,  favourably,  power- 
fully. 

4.  Insert   suitable   conjunctions  in   place  of  the  following 
dashes :  Love — fidelity  are  inseparable.     Beware  of  parties — 
factions.     Do  well — boast  not.     Improve  time — it  flies.    There 
would  be  few  paupers — no  time  were  lost.     Be  not  proud — 
thou  art  human.     I  saw — it  was  necessary.     Honesty  is  better 
— policy.     Neither  he — I  can  do  it.     It  must  be  done — to  day 
— to  morrow.     Take  care — thou  fall.     Though  I  should  boast 
• — am  I  nothing. 


104  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

5.  Insert  suitable  prepositions  in  the  place  of  the  following 
dashes:    Plead — the  dumb.     Qualify   thyself — action — study. 
Think  often — the  worth — time.  Live — peace — all  r  icn.    Keep 
— compass.     Jest  not — serious  subjects.     Take  no  part — slan- 
der.     Guilt   starts — its  own   shadow.     Grudge   not — giving. 
Go   not — sleep — malice.     Debate   not — temptation.      Depend 
not — the  stores — others.     Contend  not — trifles.     Many  fall — 
grasping — things — their  reach.     Be  deaf — detraction. 

6.  Correct  the  following  sentences,  and  adapt  the  interjec- 
tions to  the  emotions  expressed  by  the  other  words :  Aha  !  aha ! 
I  am  undone.     Hey  !  io  !  I  am  tired.     Ho  !  be  still.     A  vaunt ! 
this  way.     Ah!  what  nonsense.     Heigh-ho!  I  am  delighted. 
Hist!  it  is  contemptible.      Oh!   for   that  sympathetic  glow! 
Ah !  what  withering  phantoms  glare ! 


PART  III. 

SYNTAX. 

SYNTAX  treats  of  the  relation,  agreement,  government, 
and  arrangement,  of  words  in  sentences. 

The  relation  of  words,  is  their  dependence,  or  connex- 
ion, according  to  the  sense. 

The  agreement  of  words,  ia  their  similarity  in  person, 
number,  gender,  case,  mood,  tense,  or  form. 

The  government  of  words,  is  that  power  which  one 
word  has  over  an  other,  to  cause  it  to  assume  some  partic 
ular  modification. 

The  arrangement  of  words,  is  their  collocation,  or  rel- 
ative position,  in  a  sentence. 

A  sentence  is  an  assemblage  of  words,  making  complete 
sense,  and  always  containing  a  nominative  and  a  verb ; 
as,  "  Reward  sweetens  labour." 

The  principal  parts  of  a  sentence  are  usually  three  ; 
namely,  the  SUBJECT,  or  nominative — the  VERB — and. 
(if  the  verb  be  transitive,)  the  OBJECT  governed  by  the 
verb  ;  as,  "  Crimes  deserve  punishment" 

The  other  parts  depend  upon  these,  either  as  primary 
or  as  secondary  adjuncts  ;  as,  ^  High  crimes  justly  de- 
serve very  severe  punishments." 

Sentences  are  of  two  kinds,  simple  and  compound. 

A  simple  sentence  is  a  sentence  which  conveys  but  one 


SYNTAX. RULES.  105 

affirmation  or  negation;  as,  "Man  is  mortal." — "Charity 
is  not  easily  provoked." 

A  compound  sentence  is  a  sentence  which  may  be  re- 
solved into  two  or  more  simple  ones ;  as,  "  Idleness  pro- 
duces want,  vice,  and  misery." 

A  clause ,  or  member,  is  a  subdivision  of  a  compound  sen- 
tence ;  and  is  itself  a  sentence,  either  simple  or  compound. 

A  phrase  is  two  or  more  words  which  express  some  re- 
lation of  different  ideas,  but  no  entire  proposition ;  as,  "By 
the  means  appointed  " — "  To  be  plain  with  you." 

Words  that  are  omitted  by  ellipsis,  and  that  are  neces- 
sarily understood  in  order  to  complete  the  construction, 
must  be  supplied  in  parsing. 

RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 

1.  RELATION  AND  AGREEMENT. 
RULE    I. ARTICLES. 

Articles  relate  to  the  nouns  which  they  limit. 

RULE    II. NOMINATIVES. 

A  Noun  or  a  Pronoun  which  is  the  subject  of  a  verb, 
must  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

RULE    III. APPOSITION. 

A  Noun  or  a  personal  Pronoun,  used  to  explain  a  prece- 
ding noun  or  pronoun,  is  put,  by  apposition,  in  the  same 
case. 

RULE    IV. ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives  relate  to  nouns  or  pronouns. 

RULE    V. PRONOUNS. 

A  Pronoun  must  agree  with  its  antecedent,  or  the  noun 
or  pronoun  which  it  represents,  in  person,  number,  and 
gender. 

RULE    VI. PRONOUNS. 

When  the  antecedent  is  a  collective  noun  convening  the 
idea  of  plurality,  the  Pronoun  must  agree  with  it  in  the 
plural  number. 

RULE    VTI. PRONOUNS. 

When  a  Pronoun  has  two  or  more  antecedents  connected 
by  and,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the  plural  number. 

RULE     VIII. PRONOUNS. 

When  a  Pronoun  has  two  or  n*ore  singular  antecedents 


106  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

connected  by  or  or  nor,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the 
singular  number. 

RULE    IX. VERBS. 

A  Yerb  must  agree  with  its  subject,  or  nominative,  in 
person  and  number. 

RULE    X. VERBS. 

When  the  nominative  is  a  collective  noun  conveying  the 
idea  of  plurality,  the  Verb  must  agree  with  it  in  the  plural 
number. 

RULE    XI. VERBS. 

When  a  Yerb  has  two  or  more  nominatives  connected 
by  andj  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the  plural  number. 

RULE    XII. VERBS. 

When  a  Yerb  has  two  or  more  singular  nominatives  con- 
nected by  or  or  nor,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the  singu- 
lar number. 

RULE    XIII. VERBS. 

When  Yerbs  are  connected  by  a  conjunction,  they  must 
either  agree  in  mood,  tense,  and  form,  or  have  separate 
nominatives  expressed. 

RULE    XIV. PARTICIPLES. 

Participles  relate  to  nouns  or  pronouns,  or  are  governed 
by  prepositions. 

RULE    XV. ADVERBS. 

Adverbs  relate  to  verbs,  participles,  adjectives,  or  other 
adverbs. 

RULE    XVI. CONJUNCTIONS. 

Conjunctions  connect  either  words  or  sentences. 

RULE    XVII. PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions  show  the  relations  of  things. 

RULE    XVIII. — INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections  have  no  dependent  construction. 

2.  GOVERNMENT.* 
RULE    XIX. POSSESSIVES. 

A  noun  or  a  pronoun  in  the  Possessive  case,  is  governed 
by  the  name  of  the  thing  possessed. 

*  The  Arrangement  of  words  is  treated  of,  in  the  Observations  under  tha 
Rules  of  Syntax,  page  122,  e t  seq. 


SYNTAX. — PARfflNQ.  107 

RULE    XX. OBJECTIVES. 

Active-transitive  verbs,  and  their  imperfect  and  pluper- 
fect participles,  govern  the  Objective  case. 

RULE    XXI. SAME    CASES. 

Active-intransitive,  passive,  and  neuter  verbs,  and  their 
participles,  take  the  same  case  after  as  before  them,  when 
both  words  refer  to  the  same  thing. 

RULE    XXII. OBJECTIVES. 

Prepositions  govern  the  Objective  case. 

RULE    XXIII. INFINITIVES. 

The  preposition  TO  governs  the  Infinitive  mood,  and 
commonly  connects  it  to  a  finite  verb. 

RULE    XXIV. INFINITIVES. 

The  active  verbs,  bid,  dare,  feel,  hear,  let,  make,  need, 
see,  and  their  participles,  take  the  Infinitive  after  them, 
without  the  preposition  TO. 

RULE    XXV. NOM.    ABSOLUTE. 

A  noun  or  a  pronoun  is  put  absolute  in  the  Nominative, 
when  its  case  depends  on  no  other  word. 

RULE    XXVI. SUBJUNCTIVES. 

A  future  contingency  is  best  expressed  by  a  verb  in  the 
Subjunctive,  present ;  and  a  mere  supposition,  with  indefi- 
nite time,  by  a  verb  in  the  Subjunctive,  imperfect:  but  a 
conditional  circumstance  assumed  as  a  fact,  requires  the 
Indicative  mood. 


EXAMPLES  FOR  PARSING. 

CHAPTER  VIL— SYNTACTICAL. 

The  grand  dew  to  all  syntactical  parsing,  is  the  sense ;  and  as 
any  composition  is  faulty  which  docs  not  rightly  deliver  the  au- 
thor's meaning,  so  every  solution  of  a  word  or  sentence  is  necessa- 
rily erroneous,  in  which  that  meaning  is  not  carefully  noticed 
and  literally  preserved. 

In  all  syntactical  parsing,  it  is  required  of  the  pupil — to  dis- 
tinguish the  different  parts  of  speech  and  their  classes;  to 
mention  their  modifications  in  order ;  to  point  out  their  relation, 
agreement,  or  government ;  and  to  apply  the  Rules  of  Syntax, 
Thus : 


103  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

EXAMPLE  PARSED. 

u  This  enterprise,  alas !    will  never  compensate  us  for  the 
trouble  and  expense  with  which  it  has  been  attended." 

Thi*  is  a  pronominal  adjective,  of  the  singular  number,  not  compared :  and 
relates  to  enterprise ;  according  to  Rule  IV,  which  says,  "  Adjec- 
tive* relate  to  nouns  or  pronouns."  Because  the  meaning  is — this 
enterprise. 

Enterprise  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  neuter 
gender,  and  nominative  case:  and  is  the  subject  of  will  compensate; 
according  to  Rule  II,  which  says,  "  A  noun  or  a  pronoun  which  is 
the  subject  of  a  verb,  must  be  in  the  nominative  case."  Because 
the  meaning  is — enterprise  will  compensate. 

AUt  is  an  interjection,  indicating  sorrow :  and  is  used  independently ;  ac- 
cording to  Rule  XVIII,  which  says,  "  Interjections  have  no  de- 
pendent construction."  Because  the  meaning  is — alas  I — uncon- 
nected with  the  rest  of  the  sentence. 

Witt  is  an  auxiliary  to  compensate. 

Never  is  an  adverb  of  time :  and  relates  to  will  compensate ;  according  to 
Rule  XV,  which  says,  "  Adverbs  relate  to  verbs,  participle!,  ad- 
jectives, or  other  adverbs."  Because  the  meaning  is — never  will 
compensate. 

Will  compensate  is  a  regular  active-transitive  verb,  from  compensate,  com- 
pensated,  compensating,  compensated ;  found  in  tne  indicative 
mood,  first-future  tense,  third  person,  and  singular  number :  and 
agrees  with  its  nominative  enterprise ;  according  to  Rule  IX, 
which  says,  "  A  Verb  must  agree  with  its  subject,  or  nominative, 
in  person  and  number."  Because  the  meaning  is — enterprise  will 
compensate. 

Us  is  a  personal  pronoun,  representing  the  speakers,  in  the  first  person,  plu- 
ral number,  and  masculine  gender ;  according  to  Rule  V,  which 
says,  "A  pronoun  must  agree  with  its  antecedent,  or  the  noun  or 
pronoun  which  it  represents,  in  person,  number,  and  gender:" 
and  is  in  the  objective  case,  being  governed  by  icitt  compensate; 
according  to  Rule  XX,  which  says,  "  Active-transitive  verbs,  and 
their  imperfect  and  pluperfect  participles,  govern  the  objective  case." 
Because  the  meaning  is — will  compensate  us — i.  e.  will  compensate 
the  speakers. 

For  ia  a  preposition :  and  shows  the  relation  between  trouble  and  expense 
and  will  compensate;  according  to  Rule  XVII,  which  says,  "  Prep- 
ositions show  the  relations  of  things."  Because  the  meaning  is 
— will  compensate  for  trouble  and  expense. 

The  is  the  definite  article:  and  relates  to  trouble  and  expense;  according  to 
Rule  I,  which  says,  "Articles  relate  to  the  nouns  which  they  limit." 
Because  the  meaning  is — the  trouble  and  expense. 

Trouble  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  neuter 
gender,  and  objective  case :  and  is  governed  uy  for ;  according  to 
Rule  XXII,  which  says,  "  Prepositions  govern  the  objective  case." 
Because  the  meaning  is— -for  trouble. 

And  is  a  copulative  conjunction:  and  connects  trouble  and  expense;  ac- 
cording to  Rule  XVI,  which  says,  "  Conjunctions  connect  cither 
words  or  sentences."  Because  the  meaning  is — trouble  and  ex~ 
pense. 

Expense?  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  neu 
ter  gender,  and  objective  case:  and  is  connected  by  and  to  trou- 
ble, and  governed  by  for ;  according  to  Rule  XXII,  which  says, 


SYNTAX. PARSING.  109 

11  Prepositions  govern  the  objective  case  "  Because  the  meaning 
is — -for  trouble  and  expense. 

With  is  a  preposition :  and  shows  the  relation  between  'which  and  Jiat 
been  attended;  according  to  Rule  XVII,  which  says,  "  Prepori- 
tions  show  the  relations  of  things."  Because  the  meaning  is — 
which  it  has  been  attended  with — or,  has  been  attended  with 
which. 

Which  is  a  relative  pronoun,  representing  trouble  and  expense,  in  the  third 
person,  plural  number,  and  neuter  gender ;  according  to  Rule 
VII,  which  says,  "When  a  pronoun  has  two  or  more  antecedents 
connected  by  and,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the  plural  number :" 
and  is  in  the  objective  case,  being  governed  by  with ;  according  to 
Rule  XXII,  which  says,  "  Prepositions  govern  the  objective  case." 
Because  the  meaning  is — with  which — i.  e.  with  whicn  trouble  and 
expense. 

It  u  a  personal  pronoun,  representing  enterprise,  in  the  third  person,  singu- 
lar number,  and  neuter  gender;  according  to  Rule  V,  which  says, 
"  A  pronoun  must  agree  with  its  antecedent,  or  the  noun  or  pro- 
noun which  it  represents,  in  person,  number,  and  gender :"  and  is 
in  the  nominative  case,  being  the  subject  of  lias  been  attended;  ac- 
cording to  Rule  II,  which  says,  "A  noun  or  a  pronoun  which  is 
the  subject  of  a  verb,  must  be  in  the  nominative  case."  Because 
the  meaning  is — it  has  been  attended — i.  e.  the  enterprise  has  been 
attended. 

Ha*  been  attended  is  a  regular  passive  verb,  from  the  active  verb  attend, 
attended,  attending,  attended — passive,  to  be  attended;  found 
in  the  indicative  mood,  perfect  tense,  third  person,  and  singular 
number:  and  agrees  with  its  nominative  it;  according  to  Rule 
IX,  which  says,  "  A  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject,  or  nomi- 
native, in  person  and  number."  Because  the  meaning  is — it  has 
been  attended. 

LESSON  I.— RULE  I. 

A  man  of  a  lively  imagination,  has  a  property  in  every  thing 
which  he  sees;  and  exults  in  the  happiness  of  the  myriads  of 
living  creatures  that  inhabit  the  woods,  the  lawns,  and  the  moun- 
tains. 

As  the  branches  of  a  tree  return  their  sap  to  the  root,  from 
which  it  arose ;  as  a  river  pours  its  waters  to  the  sea,  from 
which  its  springs  were  supplied  ;  so  the  heart  of  a  grateful  man 
delights  in  returning  a  benefit  received. 

Spring  hangs  her  infant  blossoms  on  the  trees, 
^Rock;d  in  tht  cradle  of  the  western  breeze. — Cowper. 

LESSON  II.— RULE  II. 

We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident :  that  all  men  are  cre- 
ated equai ;  that  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator,  with  cer- 
tain unalienoble  rights;  that  among  these,  are  life,  liberty,  and 
the  pursuit  of  happiness, — Dec.  of  Independence. 

They  who  are  moderate  in  their  expectations,  meet  with  few 
disappo'ntments. 

,0 


110  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Which,  now,  of  these  three  [men.]  thinkest  thou,  was  neigh' 
hour  unto  him  thai  fell  among  the  thieves  ?  And  he  said,  *  H 
that  showed  mercy  on  him.' — Luke,  x.  36. 

Who  takes  care  of  all  people,  when  they  are  sunk  in  sleep, 
when  they  cannot  defend  themselves,  nor  see  if  danger  ap- 
proaches ? — Barbauld. 

Men  whose  circumstances  will  permit  them  to  choose  their  own 
way  of  life,  are  inexcusable,  if  they  do  not  pursue  that  which 
their  judgment  tells  them  is  the  most  laudable. — Blair. 

Thou  rather,  with  thy  sharp  and  sulph'rous  bolt, 
Splitst  the  unwedgeable  and  gnarled  oak. — Shak. 

LESSON  III.— RULE  III. 

In  the  fifth  century,  the  Franks,  a  people  of  Germany,  in- 
vaded France. — Allen. 

Jerusalem,  the  Jewish  capital,  was  destroyed  by  the  Romans 
under  Titus  the  son  of  Vespasian. 

In  the  days  of  Joram,  king  of  Israel,  flourished  the  prophet 
Elisha. — Blair. 

Sisera  fled,  and  took  refuge  in  the  tent  of  Jael,  a  woman  of 
the  Kenite  tribe,  the  descendants  of  Hobab,  Moses's  brother-in- 
law. — Milman, 

Him,  Tubal  nam'd,  the  Vulcan  of  old  times, 

The  sword  and  falchion  their  inventor  claim. — Cowper. 

Virtuo  itself  'scapes  not  calumnious  strokes. — Shah* 

All  now  are  vanished !     Virtue  sole  survives ; 
Immortal,  never-failing  friend  of  man, 
His  guide  to  happiness  on  high. — Thomson. 

LESSON  IV.— RULE  IV. 

A  suspicious  uncharitable  spirit  is  not  only  inconsistent  with  all 
social  virtue  and  happiness,  but  it  is  also,  in  itself,  unreasonable 
and  unjust. — Blair. 

Any  man  who  attends  to  what  passes  within  himse-If,  may 
easily  discern  that  the  human  character  is  a  very  complicated 
system. — Id. 

Among  the  vicious,  friendship  is  coeval  only  with  mutual  sat- 
isfaction.— Alien. 

Pitch  upon  that  course  of  life  which  is  the  most  excellent,  and 
custom  will  render  it  the  most  delightful. — Blair. 

No  worldly  enjoyments  are  adequate  to  the  high  desires  and 
powers  of  an  immortal  spirit. — Id. 

The  mighty  tempest,  and  the  hoary  waste, 
Abrupt  and  deep,  stretch'd  o'er  the  buried  earth, 
Awake  to  solemn  thought. — Thamson. 


SYNTAX. — PARSING.  Ill 

The  gaudy,  babbling,  and  remorseful  day 
Is  crept  into  the  bosom  of  the  sea. — Shak. 

LESSON  V.— RULE  V. 

The  chief  misfortunes  that  befall  us  in  life,  can  be  traced  to 
some  vices  or  follies  which  we  have  committed. 

The  Psalms  of  David  present  religion  to  us,  in  the  most  en- 
"gaging  dress;  communicating  truths  which  philosophy  could 
ntjver  investigate,  in  a  style  which  poetry  can  never  equal.  He 
who  has  once  tasted  their  excellencies,  will  desire  to  taste  them 
again  ;  and  he  who  tastes  them  oftenest,  will  relish  them  best. — 
Horne. 

1  Hassan,'  said  the  caliph,  c  what  canst  thou  have  lost,  whose 
wealth  was  the  labour  of  thy  own  hand ;  and  what  can  have 
made  thee  sad,  the  spring  of  whose  joy  was  in  thy  own  bosom  ?' 
— Hawkesworth. 

He  that  has  light  within  his  own  clear  breast, 
May  sit  in  the  centre,  and  enjoy  bright  day : 
But  he  that  hides  a  dark  soul  and  foul  thoughts. 
Benighted  walks  under  the  mid-day  sun. — Miuort. 

LESSON  VI.— RULE  V. 

There  is  a  simplicity  in  the  words,  width  outshines  the  ut- 
most pride  of  expression. — Addison. 

He  that  can  please  nobody,  is  not  so  much  to  be  pitied,  as 
he  that  nobody  can  please. 

The  meeting  was  so  respectable,  that  the  propriety  of  it 
decision  can  hardly  be  questioned. 

God  is  on  the  side  of  virtue :  for  whoever  dreads  punishment, 
suffers  it ,  ana  whoever  deserves  it,  dreads  it. — Lacoji. 

Every  society  has  a  right  to  prescribe  for  itself  the  terms  on 
which  its  members  shall  be  admitted. 

We  never,  in  a  moral  way,  applaud  or  blame  either  ourselves 
or  others  for  what  we  enjoy  or  what  we  suffer ;  or  for  having 
impressions  made  upon  us  which  we  consider  as  being  altogether 
out  of  our  power :  but  only  for  what  we  do,  or  would  have  done 
had  it  been  in  our  power ;  or  for  what  we  leave  undone  which 
we  might  have  done,  or  would  have  left  undone  though  we  coulc: 
have  done  it. — Bp.  Butler. 

Th'  Egyptian  crown  I  to  your  hands  remit ; 
And  with  it  take  his  heart  who  offers  it. — Shak. 

LESSON  VII.— RULE  VI. 

The  clergy  declared  against  any  peace  which  would  not 
give  to  their  prelates  a  right  to  sit  in  parliament. 


112  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

The  fair  sex,  whose  task  is  not  to  mingle  in  the  labours  a, 
public  life,  have  their  own  part  assigned  them  to  act. 

The  committee,  not  depending  on  the  royal  favour,  demand- 
ed the  security  of  a  legal  and  formal  declaration  of  the  rights 
thty  claimed. — Hist,  of  Ireland. 

The  English  people  showed  that  they  were  not  insensible  to 
what  was  passing  in  Ireland. — Ibid. 

The  majority  of  the  assembly  were  more  consistent  and  tem- 
perate :  they  considered  that  to  decline  a  cessation,  would  be  to 
refute  all  their  professions  of  loyalty. — Ibid. 

By  Wisdom  tutor'd,  Poetry  exalts 

Her  voice  to  ages  ;  and  informs  the  page 

With  music,  image,  sentiment  and  thought ; 

Never  to  die  !  the  treasure  of  mankind  ! 

Their  highest  honour,  and  their  purest  joy  ! — Thomson. 

LESSON  VIll.— RULE  VII. 

Socrates  and  Plato  were  celebrated  for  their  wisdom ;  they 
were  the  most  eminent  philosophers  of  Greece. — Murray. 

And  rnaraoh  sent,  and  called  for  Moses  and  Aaron,  and 
said  unto  them,  "  I  have  sinned  this  time ;  the  Lord  is  right- 
eous, and  I  and  my  people  are  wicked.' — Bible. 

Education,  when  it  works  upon  a  noble  mind,  draws  out  to 
view  many  latent  virtues  and  perfections,  which^  without  its  aid, 
would  never  be  able  to  make  their  appearance. 

Honour  thy  father  and  mother,  both  in  word  and  deed,  tha* 
a  blessing  may  come  upon  thee  from  them. 

How  gladly  would  the  man  recall  to  life 

The  boy's  neglected  sire !  a  mother  too, 

That  softer  friend,  perhaps  more  gladly  still, 

Might  he  demand  tJiem  at  the  gates  of  death. — Cowper. 

LESSON  I>r.~ RULE  VIII. 

Snow  or  ice,  when  it  melts,  absorbs  heat  and  produces  cold. 

A  marsh  overgrown  with  willows,  or  a  mountain  shaded 
will?  oaks,  is  not  only  more  beautiful  but  more  beneficial,  than 
when  [it  is]  naked  and  unadorned. — Addison. 

Mark  the  effect  of  art  upon  a  block  of  marble :  how  the 
skill  of  the  polisher  fetches  out  the  colours,  makes  the  surface 
shine,  and  discovers  every  ornamental  cloud,  spot,  or  vein,  that 
runs  through  the  body  of  i: !  What  sculpture  is  to  a  block  ol 
marble,  education  is  to  a  human  soul. — Id. 

The  moral  system  of  nature,  or  natural  religion,  approves 
&se//*a!most  intuitively  to  a  reasonable  mind,  upon  seeing  it  Dro- 
posed.— J5p. 


SYNTAX.— -PARSING.  113 

The  saint  or  moralist  should  tread 

This  moss-grown  alley,  musing,  slow ; 
[lie  seeks,]  like  me,  the  secret  shade, 

But  not,  like  me,  to  nourish  wo. — Cowpcr. 

LESSON  X.— RULE  IX. 

I  perceive,  the  difference  ;  it  is  very  obvious. 
Thou  sayst  thou  dost  not  know  where  thou  art. 
He  does  not  like  the  office,  and  he  begs  to  be  excused. 
It  seems  she  is  disappointed,  and  no  one  pities  her. 
We  depend  upon  your  assistance ;  for  we  need  it 
Do  you  recollect  the  words  ?     I  think  they  are  these. 
They  are  found  to  be  incorrect.     Who  knows  them  ? 
I  retired  from  the  throng,  and  sat  down  to  read. 
Bad  as  the  world  is,  respect  is  always  paid  to  virtue. 
He  stood  alone,  and  was  scoffed  by  the  profane  crew. 
He  endeavoured  to  escape,  but  they  caught  him. 
She  has  finished  her  work,  and  we  have  seen  it. 
It  has  often  been  done  in  this  way,  and  has  succeeded, 
We  had  left  the  company,  and  we  did  not  see  him. 
You  will  be  wanted  at  home  ;  do  not  tarry. 
They  will  have  returned  to  town  ;  you  will  see  them. 

The  seasons  alter ;  hoary-headed  frosts 

Fall  in  the  fresh  lap  of  the  crimson  rose. — Shah 

LESSON  XI— RULE  IX. 

Science  may  raise  thee  to  eminence  ;  but  religion  alone  can 
guide  thee  to  felicity. — Aikin. 

If  we  would  honour  merit,  we  must  not  judge  by  appear- 
ances :  a  visored  villain  may  seem  fair. 

The  laurels  of  the  warrior  must  at  all  times  be  died  in  blood, 
and  \be\  bedewed  with  the  tears  of  the  widow  and  the  orphan. 
Often  are  they  stained  by  rapine  and  cruelty. 

It  might  be  expected,  that  humanity  itself  would  prevent  them 
from  breaking  into  the  last  retreat  of  the  unfortunate. 

He  should  consider  often,  who  can  choose  but  once. 

She  may  have  forgotten  the  occurrence. 

They  can  not  have  been  deceived,  being  eye-witnesses. 

Thou  must  have  made  a  mistake. 

They  might  have  had  opportunity  to  have  returned. 

What  could  have  induced  him  to  act  in  that  manner  ? 

It  would  have  been  desirable  to  have  had  his  company. 

If  her  son  had  fallen,  her  latter  days  would  have  been  ren- 
dered miserable  :  he  was  her  only  support. 

Ha/1  we  not  been  too  hasty,  we  should  have  discovered  these 
men's  secret  intentions. 

10* 


114  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

LESSON  XII.— RULE  IX. 

If  thine  enemy  be  hungry,  give  him  bread  to  eat ;  if  he  bt 
thirsty,  give  him  water  to  drink. — Prov.  xxv.  2. . 

If  thou  duly  respected  thy  teacher,  he  would  never  have  oc- 
casion to  punish  thee. 

If  the  mind  were  left  uncultivated,  thoug-h  nothing  else  should 
find  entrance,  vice  certainly  would. — Blair. 

Say  not  thou,  '  I  will  recompense  evil ;'  but  wait  on  the  Lord, 
and  he  shall  save  thee. — Prov.  xx.  22. 

Never  indulge  revenge  to  your  own  hurt. 

Abstain  from  injuring  others,  if  you  wish  to  be  in  safety. 

Do  thou  attend  to  this  advice ;  be  not  too  confident. 

Do  not  waste  your  time ;  omit  no  opportunity  of  improve- 
ment :  time  lost  is  lost  forever. 

Be  not  discouraged ;  your  wishes  may  yet  be  gratified. 

Intemperance  engenders  disease,  sloth  produces  poverty,  pride 
creates  disappointment,  and  dishonesty  exposes  to  shame. 

Loose  conversation  operates  on  the  soul,  as  poison  does  on  the 
body. 

LESSON  XIII.— RULE  IX. 

A  variety  of  pleasing  objects,  charms  the  eye. 

Do  not  we  all  need  assistance  ?  Ought  we,  then,  to  withhold 
our  aid  from  others  ?  Chanty  is  kind  to  all. 

The  narrative  of  his  dangers  and  escapes  is  interesting. 

Humility,  as  well  as  merit,  engages  esteem. 

A  sordid  mind  is  incapable  of  friendship. — Kames. 

Neither  have  I,  nor  has  my  partner,  acceded  to  this  request. 

The  injuries  we  do,  and  those  we  suffer  ^  are  seldom  weighed 
in  the  same  balance. 

Why  dost  thou  build  the  hall,  son  of  the  winged  days  ?  thou 
lookest  from  thy  towers  to-day ;  yet  a  few  years,  and  the  blast 
of  the  desert  comes  ;  it  howls  in  thy  empty  court. — Ossian. 

Light !  from  whose  rays  all  beauty  springs, 
Darkness !  whose  wide-expanded  wings 

Involve  the  dusky  globe, 
Praise  him  who,  when  the  heavens  he  spread, 
Darkness  his  thick  pavilion  made, 

And  light  his  regal  robe. — Merrick. 

LESSON  XIV.— RULE  X. 

The  generality  of  his  hearers  were  favourable  to  his  doc- 
trines.— Allen. 

The  public  are  often  deceived  by  false  appearances  and  extrav- 
agant pretensions. 

A  considerable  number  of  the  confederates  were  induced  to 
abandon  the  counsels  of  the  nuncio. — Hist,  of  Ireland. 


SYNTAX. PARSINQ.  1 1 5 

Around  Bethesda's  healing  wave, 

Waiting  to  hear  the  rustling  wing 
Which  spoke  the  angel  nigh  who  gave 

Its  virtues  to  that  holy  spring, 
With  patience  and  with  hope  endued, 
Were  seen  the  gather'd  multitude. — Anonymous. 

LESSON  XV.— RULE  XI. 

Our  good  and  evil  proceed  from  ourselves. 

Sincerity  and  truth  form  the  basis  of  every  virtue. 

Riches,  honours,  and  pleasures,  steal  away  the  heart  from 
religion. 

On  some  occasions,  mildness  and  forbearance  are  more  pow- 
erful than  vehemence  and  severity. 

Virtue,  diligence,  and  industry,  joined  with  good  temper  and 
prudence,  must  ever  be  the  surest  means  of  prosperity. 

Day  and  night  yield  us  contrary  blessings ;  and,  at  the  same 
time,  assist  each  other,  by  giving  fresh  lustre  to  the  delights  of 
both. — Helmoth. 

For  never  any  thing  can  be  amiss, 

When  simpleness  and  duty  tender  it. — Shak. 

The  boast  of  heraldry,  the  pomp  of  power, 
And  all  that  beauty,  all  that  wealth  e'er  gave, 

Await  alike  the  inevitable  hour : 

The  paths  of  glory  lead  but  to  the  grave. — Gray. 

LESSON  XVI.— RULE  XII. 

Man's  happiness  or  misery  w,  in  a  great  measure,  put  into 
his  own  hands. — Blair. 

When  sickness,  infirmity,  or  reverse  of  fortune,  affects  us, 
the  sincerity  of  friendship  is  proved. 

Neither  his  vote,  his  influence,  nor  his  purse,  was  ever  with- 
held from  the  cause  in  which  he  had  engaged. 

Has  not  sloth,  or  pride,  or  ill  temper,  or  sinful  passion,  misled 
you  from  the  path  of  sound  and  wise  conduct  ? 

Fools  !  who  from  hence  into  the  notion  fall, 

That  vice  or  virtue  there  is  none  at  all. 

If  white  and  black  blend,  soften,  and  unite 

A  thousand  ways,  is  there  no  black  or  white  ? — Pope. 

LESSON  XVII.— RULE  XIII. 

Cheerfulness  keeps  up  a  kind  of  day-light  in  the  mind,  and 
fills  it  with  a  steady  and  perpetual  serenity. — Addison. 

King  Solomon  built  a  temple,  and  dedicated  it  to  the  Al- 
mighty.— Allen. 


116  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

The  pleasures  of  sense  resemble  a  foaming  torrent ;  which, 
after  a  disorderly  course,  speedily  runs  out,  and  leaves  an  empty 
and  offensive  channel. — Blair. 

Bursting  into  tears,  she  rose^  and  tore  a  lock  from  her  hair  ; 
a  lock  which  waved  o'er  her  heaving  breast. — Ossian. 
Loose,  then,  from  earth  the  grasp  of  fond  desire, 
Weigh  anchor,  and  some  happier  clime  explore. —  Young. 

LESSON  XVIIL— RULE  XIV. 

He,  stooping  down  and  looking  in,  saw  the  linen  clothes  ly- 
ing /  yet  went  he  not  in. — John,  xx.  5. 

A  man  used  to  vicissitudes,  is  not  easily  dejected. 

A  habit  of  sincerity  in  acknoivledging  faults,  is  a  guard 
against  committing  them. 

This  is  a  measure  formed  injustice,  supported  by  precedent, 
and  warranted  by  necessity. — Allen. 

The  bounty  displayed  in  the  earth,  equals  the  grandeur  mani- 
fested in  the  heavens. — Murray. 

Sitting  is  the  best  posture  for  deliberation  ;  standing,  for  per- 
suasion; a  judge,  therefore,  should  speak  sitting:  a  pleader, 
standing. 

Having  sold  his  patrimony  he  engaged  in  merchandise. 

Amazed  I  stood,  harrowed  with  grief  and  fear. — Milton. 

Lips  busy,  and  eyes  jfoW,  f^oi  falling  slow, 

Arms  hanging  idly  down,  hands  clasped  below, 

Interpret  to  the  marking  eye  distress, 

Such  as  its  symptoms  can  alone  express. —  Coivper. 

LESSON  XIX.— RULE  XV. 

Hoiv  soon  man's  earthly  enjoyments  pass  away  ! — Allen. 

We  naturally  look  with  strong  emotion  to  the  spot,  where  the 
ashes  of  those  we  have  loveol,  repose. — I).  Webster. 

[Yeturia's]  son's  wife,  Volumnia,  who  was  sitting  with  her 
when  the  woman  arrived,  and  who  was  greatly  surprised  at 
their  coming,  hastily  asked  them  the  meaning  of  so  extraordi- 
nary an  appearance. — Hooke. 

Virtue  is  bold,  and  goodness  never  fearful. — Shak. 

The  soul  that  sees  Him,  or  receives,  sublim'd, 

New  faculties,  or  learns  at  least  t'  employ 

More  worthily  the  powers  she  own'd  before. —  Coivper. 

The  canker  galls  the  infants  of  the  spring, 
Too  oft  before  their  buttons  be  disclosed ; 
And,  in  the  morn  and  liquid  dew  of  youth, 
Contagious  blastnients  are  most  imminent. — Shak. 


SYNTAX. PARSING.  117 

LESSON  XX.— RULE  XVI. 

Prosperity  gains  friends,  and  adversity  tries  them, 
Zf  yon  desire  to  be  free  from  sin,  avoid  temptation 
The  ancient  Russians  believed,  that  their  northern  mountains 
encompassed  the  globe. — Alien. 

I  disregard  their  imputations,  because  I  do  not  merit  them.    ' 
A  judge  ought  to  be  influenced  only  by  reason  and  evidence. 

Look !  as  I  blow  this  feather  from  my  face, 

And  as  the  air  blows  it  to  me  again  ; 

Obeying  with  my  wind  when  I  do  blow, 

And  yielding  to  an  other  when  it  blows ; 

Commanded  always  by  the  greater  gust : 

Such  is  the  lightness  of  you  common  men. — Shak. 

But  thou  !  who  ownst  that  earthly  bed, 

Ah !  what  will  every  dirge  avail  ? 
Or  tears  which  love  and  pity  shed, 

That  mourn  beneath  the  gliding  sail ! — Coltint. 

LESSON  XXL— RULE  XVII. 

Most  ofthe  troubles  which  we  meet  with  in  the  world,  arise 
from  an  irritable  temper,  or  from  improper  conduct. 

The  want  of  regularity  in  the  management  of  our  affairs, 
very  often  prevents  the  successful  accomplishment  of  those  un- 
dertakings in  which  our  fortune,  comfort,  and  happiness,  are 
involved. 

By  the  faults  of  others,  wise  men  learn  to  correct  their  own. 

O  momentary  grace  of  mortal  men, 

Which  we  more  hunter  than  the  grace  0/"God! 

Who  builds  his  hopes  in  air  of  your  fair  looks, 

Lives  like  a  drunken  sailor  on  a  mast ; 

Ready,  with  ev'ry  nod,  to  tumble  down 

Into  the  fatal  bowels  of  the  deep. — Shakspearc. 

Thou  art  the  source  and  centre  of  oil  minds, 

Their  only  point  0/*rest,  eternal  Word  ! 

From  the  departing,  they  are  lost,  and  rove 

At  random,  vnthout  honour,  hope,  or  peace. — Cowper. 

LESSON  XXII  —RULE  XVIII. 

At  that  hour,  O  how  vain  was  all  sublunary  happiness ! 
Alas,  said  I,  man  was  made  in  vain !  how  is  he  given  away 
to  misery  and  mortality ! — Addison. 

O  stretch  thy  reign,  fair  Peace,  frnrn  shore  to  shore, 
Till  conquest  cease,  and  slawy  \  •  ?v>  more ! — Pope. 


118  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

O  Nature,  how  in  every  charm  supreme ! 
Whose  votaries  feast  on  raptures  ever  new ! 

0  for  the  voice  and  fire  of  seraphim, 

To  sing  thy  glories  with  devotion  due ! — Beaitie. 

Hail !  wedded  love  I — 
Perpetual  fountain  of  domestic  sweets ! — Milton. 

LESSON  XXIIL— RULE  XIX. 

Charles's  resignation  filled  all  Europe  with  astonishment. 

Stately  are  his  steps  of  age !  lovely  the  remnant  of  his  years 
A.  crown  of  glory  are  his  hoary  locks  ! 

Joy  rose  in  Carthon's  face  :  he  lifted  his  heavy  eyes. 

Eliza's  sensibility  is  such,  that  her  brother's  misfortunes  will 
greatly  afflict  her. 

A  dutiful  son  will  hear  his  father's  instructions. 

What  is  the  bigot's  torch,  the  tyrants  chain  1 

1  smile  on  death,  if  heaven-ward  hope  remain. — CampbdL 

Ye  thrones,  dominions,  virtues,  powers, 
Join  ye  your  joyful  song  with  ours, 

With  us  your  voices  raise  ; 
From  age  to  age  extend  the  lay, 
To  heaven's  eternal  monarch  pay 

Hymns  of  eternal  praise. — Mcrrick 

LESSON  XXIV.— RULE  XX. 

Do  not  insult  a  poor  man :  his  misery  entitles  him  to  pity. 

When  our  vices  leave  us,  we  flatter  ourselves  that  we  leave 
them. 

While  riotous  indulgence  enervates  both  the  body  and  the 
mind,  purity  and  virtue  heighten  all  the  powers  of  human 
fruition. 

What  avails  the  show  of  external  liberty,  to  one  wh^  v-  • 
lost  the  government  of  himself? 

Princes  have  but  their  titles  for  their  glories, 

An  outward  honour  for  an  inward  toil ; 

And,  for  unfelt  imaginations, 

They  often  feel  a  world  of  restless  cares. — Shak. 

No  flocks  that  range  the  valley,  free, 

To  slaughter  I  condemn  : 
Taught  by  that  power  that  pities  me, 

I  learn  to  pity  them. — Goldsmith. 

LESSON  XXV.— RULE  XXI. 
The  memory  of  mischief  is  no  desirable  fame. 


SYNTAX. PARSING.  119 

Virtue  is  the  surest  road  to  happiness. 
Solid  merit  is  a  cure  for  ambition. 
Meekness  and  modesty  are  true  and  lasting  ornaments. 
Universal  benevolence  and  patriotic  zeal  appear  to  have  been 
the  motives  of  all  his  actions. 

Soon  after  his  father's  demise,  he  was  crowned  emperor. 
We,  who  never  were  his  favourites,  did  not  expect  these  at- 
tentions ;  and  we  could  scarcely  believe  it  was  he. 

Junius  Brutus,  the  son  of  Marcus  Brutus,  and  Collatinus,  the 
husband  of  Lucretia,  were  chosen  first  consuls  in  Rome. 

The  son,  bred  in  sloth,  becomes  a  spendthrift,  a  profligate,  and 
goes  out  of  the  world  a  beggar. — Swift. 

I  am,  as  thou  art,  a  reptile  of  the  earth  :  my  life  is  a  moment, 
and  eternity — in  which  days,  and  years,  and  ages,  are  nothing — 
eternity  is  before  me,  for  which  I  also  should  prepare. — Hawkes- 
worth. 

The  Lord  of  all,  himself  through  all  diffused, 
Sustains,  and  is  the  life  of  all  that  lives. 
Nature  is  but  a  name  for  an  effect 
Whose  cause  is  God. — Cowper. 

LESSON  XXVI.— RULE  XXII. 

Titles  of  honour  conferred  upon  those  who  have  no  personal 
merit,  are  like  the  royal  stamp  set  upon  base  metal. 

In  the  varieties  of  life,  we  are  inured  to  habits  both  of  the 
active  and  the  suffering  virtues. — Blair. 

By  disappointments  and  trials,  the  violence  of  our  passions  is 
tamed. — Blair. 

In  the  beginning  God  created  the  heaven  and  the  earth. 
There  is  none  like  unto  the  God  of  Jeshurun,  who  rideth 
upon  the  heaven  in  thy  help,  and  in  his  excellency  on  the  sky. — 
Deut.  xxxiii.  26. 

For  the  kingdom  of  God  is  not  in  word,  but  in  power. 
In  the  death  of  a  man  there  is  no  remedy. — Bible. 
In  every  region  the  book  of  nature  is  open  before  u*. 
Ah !  who  can  tell  the  triumphs  of  the  mind, 
By  truth  illumin'd  and  by  taste  refin'd  ? — Rogers. 
LESSON  XXVII.— RULE  XXIII.  • 

Leaning  my  head  upon  my  hand,  I  began  to  figure  to  myself 
the  miseries  of  confinement. — Sterne. 

Our  ambassadors  are  instructed  to  negotiate  a  peace  ;  and 
there  is  reason  to  think  they  will  succeed. 

I  shall  henceforth  do  good  and  avoid  evil,  without  respect  to 
the  opinions  of  men  ;  and  resolve  to  solicit  only  the  approbation 
of  that  Being,  whom  alone  we  are  sure  to  please  by  endeavour- 
ing to  please  him. — Johnson. 


120  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Delightful  task  !  to  rear  the  tender  thought. 

To  teach  the  young  idea  how  to  shoot, 

To  pour  the  fresh  instruction  o'er  the  mind, 

To  breathe  the  enlivening  spirit,  and  to  fix 

The  generous  purpose  in  the  glowing  breast.  —  TJwmton, 

LESSON  XXVIII.—  RULE  XXIV. 

You  need  not  go.     I  heard  my  father  bid  the  boy  bring  your 
trunk,  and  saw  him  go  for  it.     I  dare  say  it  will  be  safe. 

Let  him  who  desires  to  see  others  happy,  make  haste  to  give 
while  his  gift  can  be  enjoyed.  —  Blair. 

but  the  virtuous  dare  hope  in  bad  circumstances. 


Thy  Hector,  wrapp'd  in  everlasting  sleep, 

Shall  neither  hear  thee  cry,  nor  see  thee  weep.  —  Pope. 

Ye  headlong  torrents,  rapid  and  profound  ; 

Ye  softer  floods,  that  lead  the  humid  maze 

Along  the  vale  ;  and  thou  majestic  main, 

A  secret  world  of  wonders  in  thyself  ; 

Sound  His  stupendous  praise,  whose  greater  voice 

Or  bids  you  roar,  or  bids  your  roarings  fall.  —  Thomson. 

LESSON  XXIX.—  RULE  XXV. 

This  proposition  being  admitted,  I  now  state  my  argument. 

There  being  much  obscurity  in  the  case,  he  refuses  to  decide 
upon  it. 

They  being  absent,  we  cannot  come  to  a  determination. 

The  senate  consented  to  the  creation  of  tribunes  of  the  peo- 
ple, Appius  alone  protesting  against  the  measure. 

Fathers  !  Senators  of  Rome  1  the  arbiters  of  nations  !  to  you 
I  fly  for  refuge.—  Tr.  Sallust. 

Remember,  Almet,  that  the  world  in  which  thou  art  placed, 
is  but  the  road  to  an  other.  —  Hawkesworth. 

Return,  my  son,  to  thy  labour  :  thy  food  shall  again  be  taste- 
ful, and  thy  rest  shall  be  sweet.  —  Johnson. 

Ingratitude  !  thou  marble-hearted^?^, 

More  hideous  when  thou  showst  thee  in  a  child3 

Than  the  sea-monster  !  —  Shakspeare. 

O  wretched  we  !  why  were  we  hurried  down 
This  iubric  and  adulterate  age  !  —  Dryden* 

LESSON  XXX.—  RULE  XXV. 

What  misery  doth  the  vicious  man  secretly  endure  !  Adver- 
nty  !  how  blunt  are  all  the  arrows  of  thy  quiver,  in  comparison 
with  those  of  guilt.  —  Blair. 


SYNTAX. ARTICLES.  121 

Remember  the  uncertainty  of  life,  and  restrain  thy  hand  from 
evil.  He  that  was  yesterday  a  king,  behold  him  dead,  and  the 
beggar  is  better  than  he. — Bible. 

The  lamb  thy  riot  dooms  to  bleed  to-day, 

Had  he  thy  reason,  would  he  skip  and  play  ? — Pope. 

Hail !  mildly  pleasing  Solitude, 

Companion  of  the  wise  and  good. — Thompson. 

All  this  dread  order  break — for  whom  ?  for  thee  ? 
Vile  worm ! — Oh  madness !  pride  !  impiety ! — Pope. 

My  Absalom !  the  voice  of  nature  cried, 

Oh  !  that  for  thee  thy  father  could  have  died  ! 

For  bloody  was  the  deed,  and  rashly  done, 

That  slew  my  Absalom ! — my  son ! — my  son ! — CampbeU 

LESSON  XXXI.— RULE  XXVI. 

Though  hand  join  in  hand,  the  wicked  shall  not  be  unpun- 
ished.— Prov.  xi.  21. 

Let  him  that  hastens  to  be  rich?  take  heed  lest  he  suddenly 
become  poor. 

If  the  king  were  present,  Cleon,  there  would  be  no  need  of 
my  answering  to  what  thou  hast  just  proposed. — Goldsmith. 

He  seems  to  have  made  an  injudicious  choice,  though  he  it 
esteemed  a  sensible  man. 

Inspiring  thought,  of  rapture  yet  to  be  ! 

The  tears  of  love  were  hopeless  but  for  thee  ! 

If  in  that  frame  no  deathless  spirit  dwell, 

If  that  faint  murmur  be  the  last  farewell, 

If  fate  unite  the  faithful  but  to  part, 

Why  is  their  mem'ry  sacred  to  the  heart  ? — CampbeU. 


RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 

WITH    EXAMPLES,    EXCEPTIONS,    OBSERVATIONS,    NOTES,    AND    FALSB 
SYNTAX. 

1.  RELATION  AND  AGREEMENT. 

OBS. — Rdatlmi  and  Agreement  are  taken  together  that  the  rule?  may  stand 
in  the  order  of  the  parts  of  speech.  The  latter  is  moreover  naturally  allied 
to  the  former.  Seven  of  the  ten  parts  of  speech  are,  with  a  few  exception?, 
incapable  of  any  agreement ;  of  tnese,  the  relation  and  use  must  be  explain- 
ed in  parsing ;  and  all  necessary  agreement  between  any  of  the  rest,  i*  con- 
fined to  words  that  relate  to  each  other. 

11 


122  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

RULE  I.— ARTICLES. 

Articles  relate  to  the  nouns  which  they  limit :  as,  "  At 
a  little  distance  from  the  ruins  of  the  abbey,  stands  an 
aged  elm." 

EXCEPTION    FIRST. 

The  definite  article,  used  intensively,  may  relate  to  an  adjective  or  adverb 
of  the  comparative  or  the  superlative  degree;  as,  "A  land  which  was  th* 
mightiest." — Byron.  "  The  farther  they  proceeded,  the  greater  appeared 
their  alacrity." — Dr.  Johnson.  "He  chooses  it  the  ratlier." — Cowper.  [Se« 
Obs.  7th,  below.] 

EXCEPTION    SECOND. 

The  indefinite  article  is  sometimes  used  to  give  a  collective  meaning  to  ar 
adjective  of  number;  as,  "  Thou  hast  a  few  names,  even  in  Sardis." — Rev 
"  There  are  a  thousand  things  which  crowd  into  my  memory." — Spectator, 
No.  468.  [See  Obs.  12th,  next  page.] 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULE    I. 

OBS.  1. — Articles  often  relate  to  nouns  understood;  as,  "The  [riper] 
Thames" — "  Pliny  the  younger"  [man] — "  The  honourable  [body,]  the  Legis- 
lature"— "The  animal  [world]  and  the  vegetable  world" — "Neither  to  the 
right  r/tand]  nor  to  the  left'''  [hand.] — Bible.  "  He  was  a  good  man,  and  a 
just"  [ma/i.J — /&,  "  The  pride  of  swains  Palemon  was,  the  generous  [mcwi,] 
?JH!  the  rich"  [man.] — Thomson. 

OBS.  2. — It  is  not  always  necessary  to  repeat  the  article  before  several 
nouns  in  the  same  construction :  the  same  article  serves  sometimes  to  limit 
the  signification  of  more  than  one  noun ;  but  we  doubt  the  propriety  of  ever 
construing  two  articles  as  relating  to  one  and  the  same  noun. 

OBS.  3. — The  article  precedes  its  noun,  and  is  never,  by  itself,  placed  after 
it;  as,  "  Passion  is  the  drunkenness  oithe  mind." — Southey. 

OBS.  4. — When  an  adjective  precedes  the  noun,  the  article  is  placed  be- 
fore the  adjective,  that  its  power  may  extend  over  that  also;  as, 
"  The  private  path,  the  secret  acts  of  men, 
If  noble,  far  the  noblest  of  their  lives." — Yowig. 

Except  the  adjectives  ail,  such,  many,  wfiat,  both,  and  those  which  are  pre- 
ceded by  the  adverbs  too,  so,  as,  or  how;  as,  "  All  the  materials  were  bought 
at  too  doar  a  rate." — "  Like  many  an  other  poor  wretch,  I  now  suffer  all  the 
ili  consequences  of  so  foolish  an  indulgence." 

OBS.  5. — When  the  adjective  is  placed  after  the  noun,  the  article  general- 
ly retains  its  place  before  the  noun,  and  is  not  repeated  before  the  adjective ; 
as,  "A  man  ignorant  of  astronomy" — "  The  primrose  pale."  In  Greek,  when 
an  adjective  is  placed  after  its  noun,  if  the  article  is  prefixed  to  the  noun,  it 
is  repeated  before  the  adjective;  as,  'H  wSXis  h  /^ydA.-?,  The  city  the  great; 
i.  e.  The  great  city. 

OBS.  6. — Articles,  according  to  their  own  definition,  belong  before  their 
nouns ;  but  the  definite  article  and  an  adjective  seem  sometimes  to  be  placed 
after  the  noun  to  which  they  both  relate :  as,  "  Section  the  fourth" — "  Henry 
the  Eighth."  Such  examples,  however,  may  be  supposed  elliptical ;  and,  if 
they  are  so,  the  article,  in  English,  can  never  be  placed  after  its  noun,  noi 
can  two  articles  ever  properly  relate  to  one  noun,  in  any  particular  construc- 
tion of  it. 

OBS.  7. — The  definite  article  is  often  prefixed  to  comparatives  and  su- 
pcriatives ;  and  its  effect  ia,  as  Murray  observes,  (in  the  words  of  Lowth,} 
"to  mark  the  degree  the  more  strongly,  and  to  define  it  the  more  pre- 
cisely:" as,  '5  The  oftener  I  see  him,  the  more  I  respect  him."— "  A  con- 


SYNTAX. — ARTICLES.  123 

•titution  the  most  fit" — "A  claim,  the  strongest,  and  tlie  most  easily  com- 
prehended"— "The  men  the  most  difficult  to  be  replaced."  In  these  in- 
stances, the  article  seems  to  bo  used  adverbially,  and  to  relate  only  to  the 
adjective  or  adverb  following  it ;  but  after  the  adjective,  the  noun  may  be 
supplied. 

OBS.  8. — The  article  the  is  applied  to  nouns  of  both  numbers ;  as,  The  man, 
the  men — The  good  boy,  the  good  boys. 

OBS.  9. — The  article  the  is  generally  prefixed  to  adjectives  that  are  used, 
by  ellipsis,  as  nouns ;  as, 

"  The  great,  the  gay,  shall  they  partake 
The  heav'n  that  thou  alone  canst  make  7" — Cowpcr. 

OBS.  1 0. — The  article  the  is  sometimes  elegantly  used  in  stead  of  a  posses- 
sive pronoun ;  as,  "  Men  who  have  not  bowed  the  knee  to  the  image  of 
Baal/'— Rom.  xi.  4. 

OBS.  11. — An  or  a  implies  one,  and  belongs  to  nouns  of  the  singular  num- 
ber only;  as,  A  man,  a  good  boy. 

OBS.  12. — An  or  a  is  sometimes  put  before  an  adjective  of  number,  when 
the  noun  following  is  plural;  as,  "A  few  days" — "A  hundred  sheep" — 
"  There  are  a  great  many  adjectives." — Dr.  Adam.  In  these  cases,  the  arti- 
cle seems  to  relate  only  to  the  adjective.  Some  grammarians  however  call 
these  words  of  number  nouns,  and  suppose  an  ellipsis  of  the  preposition  of. 
Murray  and  many  others  call  them  adjectives,  and  suppose  a  peculiarity  of 
construction  in  the  article. 

OBS.  13. — An  or  a  has  sometimes  the  import  of  each  or  every ;  as,  "  He 
came  twice  a  year."  The  article  in  this  sense  with  a  preposition  understood, 
is  preferable  to  the  mercantile  per,  so  frequently  used ;  as,  "  Filly  cents  [for] 
a  bushel" — rather  than  "per  bushel." 

OBS.  14. — A,  as  prefixed  to  participles  in  ing,  or  used  in  composi- 
tion, is  a  preposition;  being,  probably,  the  French  a,  signifying  to,  at,  on, 
in,  or  of;  as,  "  They  burst  out  a  laughing." — M.  Edgewortti.  "  He  is 
gone  a  hunting." — "  She  lies  a-bed  all  day.  — "  He  stays  out  a-nights." 
— "They  ride  out  a-Sundays."  Shakspeare  often  uses  the  prefix  a,  and 
sometimes  in  a  manner  peculiar  to  himself;  as,  "Tom's  a  cold" — " a- 
weary." 

OBS.  15. — An  is  sometimes  a  conjunction,  signifying,  if;  as, 
"  Nay,  an  thju'lt  mouthe,  I'll  rant  as  well  as  thou." — Sliak. 

NOTES  TO  RULE  I. 

NOTE  I. — When  the  indefinite  article  is  required,  a  should 
always  be  used  before  the  sound  of  a  consonant,  and  an,  before 
that  of  a  vowel ;  as,  "  Wkh  the  talents  of  an  angel,  a  man  may 
be  a  fool." — Young. 

OBS. — An  was  formerly  used  before  all  words  beginning  with  h,  and  be- 
fore several  other  words  which  are  now  pronounced  in  such  a  manner  as  tc 
require  a:  thus,  we  read  in  the  Bible,  "An  house — an  hundred — an  one — 
an  ewer — an  usurer." 

NOTE  II. — When  nouns  are  joined  in  construction,  without 
a  close  connexion  and  common  dependence,  the  article  must  be 
repeated.  The  following  sentence  is  therefore  inaccurate: 
u  She  never  considered  the  quality,  but  merit  of  her  visitors." — 
Wm.  Penn.  The  should  be  inserted  before  merit. 

NOTE  III. — When  adjectives  are  connected,  and  the  qualities 
belong  to  things  individually  different,  though  of  the  same 


124  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

name,  the  article  should  be  repeated :  as,  "  A  black  and  a  white 
horse  " — i.  e.  two  horses,  one  black  and  the  other  white. 

NOTE  IV. — When  adjectives  are  connected,  and  the  qualities 
all  belong  to  the  same  thing  or  things,  the  article  should  not  be 
repeated ;  as,  "  A  black  and  white  Lorse  " — i.  e.  om  horse,  piebald. 

OBS.  1. — The  reason  of  the  two  preceding  notes  is  this:  by  a  repetition 
of  the  article  before  several  adjectives  in  the  same  construction,  a  repetition 
of  the  noun  is  implied ;  but  without  a  repetition  of  the  article,  the  adjectives 
are  confined  to  one  and  the  same  noun. 

OBS.  2. — To  avoid  repetition,  we  sometimes,  with  one  article,  join  incon- 
sistent qualities  to  a  plural  noun;  as,  "  The  Old  and  New  Testaments" — 
for,  "  The  Old  and  the  New  Testament."  But  the  phrases,  "  The  Old  and 
New  Testament"  and  "  The.  Old  and  the  New  Testaments,"  are  both  ob- 
viously incorrect. 

NOTE  V. — The  article  should  not  be  used  before  the  names 
of  virtues,  vices,  passions,  arts,  or  sciences ;  before  simple  proper 
names  5  or  before  any  noun  whose  signification  is  sufficiently 
definite  without  it :  as,  "  Falsehood  is  odious." — "  Iron  is  use- 
ful."— "Beauty  is  vain." 

NOTE  VI. — When  titles  are  mentioned  merely  as  titles,  the 
article  should  not  be  used ;  as,  "  He  is  styled  Marquis" — 
"  Ought  a  teacher  to  call  his  pupil  Master  .?" 

NOTE  VII. — In  expressing  a  comparison,  if  both  nouns  refer 
to  the  same  subject,  the  article  should  not  be  inserted  ;  if  to  dif- 
ferent subjects,  it  should  not  be  omitted  :  thus,  if  we  say,  "  He 
is  a  better  teacher  than  poet,"  \ve  compare  different  qualifica- 
tions of  the  same  man  ;  but  if  we  say,  "  He  is  a  better  teacher 
than  a  poet/'  we  refer  to  different  men. 

NOTE  VIII. — The  definite  article,  or  some  other  definitive,  is 
generally  required  before  the  antecedent  to  the  pronoun  who  or 
which  in  a  restrictive  clause  ;  as,  "  The  men  who  were  present, 
consented." 

NOTE  IX. — The  article  is  generally  required  in  that  con- 
struction which  converts  a  participle  into  a  verbal  noun ;  as, 
"  The  completing  of  this,  by  the  working-out  of  sin  inherent, 
must  be  by  the  power  and  spirit  of  Christ,  in  the  heart." — Wm. 
Penn.  "  They  shall  be  an  abhorring  unto  all  flesh." — Isaiah^ 
Ixvi.  24. 

NOTE  X. — The  article  should  not  be  prefixed  to  a  participle 
that  is  not  taken  in  all  respects  as  a  noun  ;  as,  "  He  made  a 
mistake  in  the  giving  out  the  text."  Expunge  the. 

FALSE  SYNTAX  UNDER  RULE  I. 

§jjT  [The  Examples  of  False  Syntax  placed  under  the  rules,  are  to  be 
corrected  orally  by  the  pupil,  ac-  ording  to  the  formules  given,  or  according 
to  others  framed  in  like  manner,  and  adapted  to  the  several  notes.  \ 


SYNTAX. — ARTICLES.  125 

Examples  under  Note  1. 
He  went  into  an  house. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  article  an  is  used  before  house,  which  begins 
with  the  sound  of  the  consonant  h.  But,  according  to  Note  1st  und^r  Rule 
1st,  "  When  the  indefinite  article  is  required,  a  should  always  be  used  before 
the  sound  of  a  consonant,  and  an  before  that  of  a  vowel."  Therefor?,  an 
should  be  a ;  thus,  He  went  into  a  house.] 

This  is  an  hard  saying. 

A  humble  heart  shall  find  favour. 

Passing  from  an  earthly  to  an  heavenly  diadem. 

Few  have  the  happiness  of  living  with  such  an  one. 

She  evinced  an  uniform  adherence  to  the  truth. 

A  hospital  is  an  asylum  for  the  sick. 

This  is  truly  an  wonderful  invention. 

He  is  an  younger  man  than  we  supposed. 

An  humorsome  child  is  never  long  pleased. 

A  careless  man  is  unfit  for  a  hostler. 

Under  Note  2. 

Avoid  rude  sports :  an  eye  is  soon  lost,  or  bone  broken. 
As  the  drop  of  the  bucket  and  dust  of  the  balance. 
Not  a  word  was  uttered,  nor  sign  given. 
I  despise  not  the  doer,  but  deed. 

Under  Note  3. 

What  is  the  difference  between  the  old  and  new  method? 

The  sixth  and  tenth  have  a  close  resemblance. 

Is  Paris  on  the  right  hand  or  left  ? 

Does  Peru  join  the  Atlantic  or  Pacific  ocean  ? 

He  was  influenced  both  by  a  just  and  generous  principle, 

The  book  was  read  by  the  old  and  young. 

I  have  both  the  large  and  small  grammar. 

Are  both  the  north  and  south  line  measured  ? 

Are  the  north  line  and  south  both  measured  ? 

Are  both  the  north  and  south  lines  measured  ? 

Are  both  the  north  lines  and  south  measured? 

Under  Note  4. 

Is  the  n®rth  and  the  south  line  measured  ? 
Are  the  two  north  and  the  south  lines  both  measured  ? 
A  great  and  a  good  man  looks  beyond  time. 
They  made  but  a  weak  and  an  ineffectual  resistance. 
The  Allegany  and  the  Monongahela  rivers  form  the  Ohia 
I  rejoice  that  there  is  an  other  and  a  better  world. 
Were  God  to  raise  up  an  other  such  a  man  as  Moses. 
The  light  and  the  worthless  kernels  will  float. 

11* 


106  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Under  Note  5. 

Cleon  was  an  other  sort  of  a  man. 
There  is  a  species  of  an  animal  called  a  seal. 
Let  us  wait  in  the  patience  and  the  quietness. 
The  contemplative  mind  delights  in  the  silence. 
Arithmetic  is  a  branch  of  the  mathematics. 
You  will  never  have  an  other  such  a  chance. 
I  expected  some  such  an  answer. 
And  I  persecuted  this  way  unto  the  death. 

Under  Note  6. 

He  is  entitled  to  the  appellation  of  a  gentleman. 
Cromwell  assumed  the  title  of  a  Protector. 
Her  father  is  honoured  with  the  title  of  an  Earl. 
The  chief  magistrate  is  styled  a  President. 
The  highest  title  in  the  state  is  that  of  the  Governor. 

Under  Note  7. 

He  is  a  better  writer  than  a  reader. 
He  was  an  abler  mathematician  than  a  linguist. 
I  should  rather  have  an  orange  than  apple. 

Under  Note  8. 
Words  which  are  signs  of  complex  ideas,  are  liable  to  be  mis« 

understood. 

Carriages  which  were  formerly  in  use,  were  very  clumsy. 
The  place  is  not  mentioned  by  geographers  who  wrote  at  that 

time. 

Under  Note  9. 

Means  are  always  necessary  to  accomplishing  of  ends. 
By  seeing  of  the  eye,  and  hearing  of  the  ear,  learn  wisdom. 
In  keeping  of  his  commandments,  there  is  great  reward. 
For  revealing  of  a  secret,  there  is  no  remedy. 
Have  you  no  repugnance  to  torturing  of  animals  ? 

Under  Note  10. 

By  the  breaking  the  law,  you  dishonour  the  lawgiver. 
An  argument  so  weak  is  not  worth  the  mentioning. 
In  the  letting  go  our  hope,  we  let  all  go. 
Avoid  the  talking  too  much  of  your  ancestors. 
The  cuckoo  keeps  the  repeating  her  -unvaried  notes. 
Forbear  the  boasting  of  what  you  can  do. 

RULE  II.— NOMINATIVES. 

A  Noun  or  a  Pronoun  which  is  the  subject  of  a  verb, 
must  be  in  the  nominative  case  :  as, 
"  I  know  thou  sayst  it :  says  thy  life  the  same  ?" — Young. 


SYNTAX. — NOMINATIVES.  127 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULE    II. 

OBS,  1. — To  this  rule  there  arc  no  exceptions.  And  in  connected  Ian* 
giiage,  every  nominative  stands  as  the  subject  of  some  verb  expressed  or  un- 
derstood ;  except  such  as  are  put  in  apposition  with  other  nominatives,  ac- 
cording to  Rule  &1 — after  a  verb,  according  to  Rule  21st — or  absolute,  accord- 
ing fo  Rule  25th. 

Ots.  2. — The  subject,  or  nominative,  is  generally  placed  before  the  verb; 
as,  "  Peace  dawned  upon  liis  mind." — ^Johnson.  "  What  is  written  in  the 
law  1"  -Bible. 

OBS.  1. — But,  in  the  following  nine  cases,  the  subject  is  usually  placed  af- 
ter the  verb,  or  after  the  first  auxiliary  : 

1 .  When  a  question  is  asked,  without  an  interrogative  pronoun  in  the 
nominative  case ;  as,  "  Shall  mortals  be  implacable^ — "  Wnat  art  thou  do- 
ing ?" — Ifooke. 

2.  When  the  verb  is  in  the  imperative  mood ;  as,  "  Go  thou" 

3.  WThen  an  earnest  wish,  or  other  strong  feeling  is  expressed;  as,  "May 
?/te  be  happy  !" — "  How  were  we  struck!" — Young. 

4.  When  a  supposition  is  made  without  a  conjunction;  as,  "  Were  it  true; 
it  would  not  injure  us." 

5.  When  neither  or  nor,  signifying  and  not,  precedes  the  verb ;  as,  "  This 
was  his  fear ;  nor  was  his  apprehension  groundless. 

G.  When,  for  the  sake  of  emphasis,  some  word  or  words  are  placed  before 
the  verb,  which  more  naturally  come  after  it ;  as,  "  Here  am  I,  — "  Narrow 
is  the  way." — "  Silver  and  gold  have  I  none;  but  such  as  I  have,  give  1 
thce." — Bible. 

7.  When  the  verb  has  no  regimen,  and  is  itself  emphatical ;  as,  "  EcJio 
the  'mountains  round." — Thomson. 

8.  When  the  verbs  say,  think,  reply,  and  the  like,  introduce  the  parts  of  a 
dialogue ;  as,  " '  Son  of  affliction/  said  Omar,  <  who  art  thou  V    '  My  name, 
replied  the  stranger,  'is  Hassan.'" — Johnson. 

9.  WThen  the  adverb  there  precedes  the  verb ;  as,  "  There  lived  a  man," — 
Montg.     "  In  all  worldly  joys,  there  is  a  secret  wound" — Owen. 

FALSE  SYNTAX  UNDER  RULE  II. 

Thee  must  have  been  idle.  % 

[Not  proper,  because  the  objective  pronoun  thee  is  made  the  subject  of  the 
verb  must  have  been.  But,  according  to  Rule  2d,  "  A  noun  er  a  pronoun 
which  is  the  subject  of  a  verb,  must  be  in  the  nominative  case."  Therefore, 
thee  should  be  thou ;  thus,  Thou  must  have  been  idle.] 

Him  that  is  studious,  will  improve. 

Them  that  seek  wisdom,  will  be  wise. 

She  and  me  are  of  the  same  age. 

You  are  two  or  three  years  older  than  us. 

Are  not  John  and  thee  cousins  1 

I  can  write  as  handsomely  as  thee. 

Nobody  said  so  but  him. 

Whom  dost  thou  think  was  there  ? 

Who  broke  this  slate  ?  Me. 

We  are  alone  ;  here's  none  but  thee  and  I. — Shak. 

Them  that  honour  me,  I  will  honour ;  and  them  that  despise 

me,  shall  be  lightly  esteemed. 
Ele  whom  in  that  instance  was  deceived,  is  a  man  of  sound 

judgement. 


128  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

RULE  III.— APPOSITION. 

A  Noun  or  a  personal  Pronoun  used  to  explain  a  pre- 
ceding noun  or  pronoun,  is  put,  by  apposition,  in  the  same 
case :  as, 

"  But  he,  our  gracious  Master,  kind  as  just, 
Knowing  oi»  frame,  remembers  we  are  dust" — Barbauld. 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULE    III. 

OBS.  1. — Apposition  is  the  using  of  different  words  or  appellations,  to  des- 
ignate the  same  thing.  Apposition  also  denotes  the  relation  which  exists 
between  the  words  which  are  so  employed.  In  parsing,  rule  third  should 
be  applied  only  to  the  explanatory  term ;  because  the  case  of  the  principal 
term  depends  on  its  relation  to  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  and  comes  under 
some  other  rule. 

OBS.  2. — To  this  rule,  there  are  properly  no  exceptions.  But  there  are 
many  puzzling  examples  under  it,  which  the  following  observations  are 
designed  to  explain.  The  rule  supposes  the  first  word  to  be  the  principal 
term,  with  which  the  other  is  in  apposition;  and  it  generally  is  so:  but 
the  explanatory  word  is  sometimes  placed  first,  especially  among  the 
poets;  as, 

"  From  brightening  fields  of  ether  fair  disclos'd, 

Child  of  the  sun,  refulgent  Summer  comes." — TJiomson. 
OBS.  3. — The  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons  are  often  prefix- 
ed to  nouns,  merely  to  distinguish  their  person ;  as,  "  /  John  saw  these 
hings." — "  This  is  the  stone  which  was  set  at  nought  of  you  builders" — 
Bible.  "  His  praise,  ye  brooks,  attune." — Thorn  sort.  In  this  case  of  appo- 
sition, the  words  are  closely  united,  and  either  of  them  may  be  taken  as  the 
explanatory  term :  the  learner  will  find  it  easier  to  parse  the  noun  by  rule 
third. 

OBS.  4. — When  two  or  more  nouns  of  the  possessive  case  are  put  in  ap- 
position, the  possessiv*  termination  added  to  one,  denotes  the  case  of 
both  or  all :  as,  "  His  brother  Philip's  wife" — "John  the  Baptist's  head." — 
"  At  rnv  friend  Johnson's,  the  bookseller."  By  a  repetition  of  the  posses- 
sive sign,  a  distinct  governing  noun  is  implied,  and  the  apposition  is  de- 
stroyed. 

OBS.  5. — In  like  manner,  a  noun  without  the  possessive  sign,  is  some- 
times put  in  apposition  with  a  pronoun  of  the  possessive  case;  as,  "As  an 
author,  his  {  Adventurer'  is  his  capital  work." — Murray. 
"  Thus  shall  mankind  his  guardian  care  engage, 
The  promised  father  of  the  future  age." — Pope. 

OBS.  6, — When  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  repeated  for  the  sake  of  emphasis, 
the  word  which  is  repeated  may  properly  be  said  to  be  in  apposition  with 
that  which  is  first  introduced ;  as,  "  They  have  forsaken  me,  the  Fountain 
of  living  waters,  and  hewed  them  out  cisterns,  broken  cisterns,  that  can  hold 
no  water." — Jer.  ii.  13. 

OBS.  7. — A  noun  is  sometimes  put  in  apposition  to  a  sentence;  as,  "He 
permitted  me  to  consult  his  library — a  kindness  which  I  shall  not  forget  "- 
Alien. 

OBS.  8. — A  distributive  term  in  the  singular  number,  is  frequently  con- 
strued in  apposition  with  a  comprehensive  plural ;  as,  "  Tliey  reap  vanity, 
every  one  with  his  neighbour." — Bible,  "  Go  ye  every  man  unto  his 
city." — Ibid.  And  sometimes  a  phtral  word  is  emphatically  put  after  a 


SYNTAX. APPOSITION.  129 

series  of  particulars  comprehended  under  it ;  as,  "  Ambition,  interest,  honour, 
all  concurred." — Muring;  ''Royalinta,  republican*,  churchmen,  sectaries, 
courtiers,  patriots,  all  parties  concurred  in  the  illusion."-  Hume. 

OBS.  9. — To  express  a  reciprocal  action  or  relation,  the  pronominal  ad- 
jectives each  other  and  one  an  other  are  employed :  as,  "  They  love  each  other  ;" 
— "  They  love  one  an  other"  The  words  separately  considered,  arc  singular ; 
but  taken  together,  they  imply  plurality ;  and  they  can  be  properly  con- 
strued only  after  plurals,  or  singulars  taken  conjointly.  Eachother  is  usual- 
ly applied  to  two  objects  ;  and  one  an  other  y  to  more  than  two.  The  terms, 
though  reciprocal,  and  closely  united,  are  never  in  the  same  construction. 
If  such  expressions  be  analyzed,  each  and  one  will  generally  appear  to  be  in 
the  nominative  case,  and  other  in  the  objective;  as,  "  They  love  each  other ;" 
i.  e.  each  loves  the  other.  Each  is  properly  in  apposition  with  they,  and  other 
is  governed  by  the  verb.  The  terms,  however,  admit  of  other  constructions  j 
as,  "  Be  ye  helpers  one  of  an  other" — Bible.  Here  one  is  in  apposition  with 
ye,  and  other  is  governed  by  of.  "Ye  are  one  an  other's  joy." — Ib.  Here 


fore.     The  Latin  terms  alias  alium,  alii  alios,  &c.  sufficiently  confirm  this 
doctrine. 

OBS.  10. — The  common  and  the  proper  name  of  an  object  are  often  asso- 
ciated, and  put  in  apposition  ;  as,  The  river  Thames — The  ship  Albion— The 
poet  Cowper — Lake  Erie — Cape  May — Mount  Atlas.  But  the  proper  name 
of  a  place,  when  accompanied  by  the  common  name,  is  generally  put  in  the 
objective  case,  and  preceded  by  of;  as,  The  city  of  New  York — The  land 
of  Canaan. 

OBS.  11. — The  several  proper  names  which  distinguish  an  individual,  are 
always  in  apposition,  and  should  be  taken  together  in  parsing ;  as,  William 
Pitt — Marcus  Tullius  Cicero. 

OBS.  12. — When  an  object  acquires  a  new  name  or  character  from  the  ac- 
tion of  a  verb,  the  new  appellation  is  put  in  app.osition  -with  the  object  of  the 
active  verb,  and  in  the  nominative  after  the  passive ;  as,  "  They  named  the 
child  John — The  child  was  named  John" — "  They  elected  him  president 
He  was  elected  president" — After  the  active  verb,  the  acquired  name  raust 
be  parsed  by  Rule  3d ;  after  the  passive,  by  Rule  21st. 

FALSE  SYNTAX  UNDER  RULE  III. 

I  have  received  a  letter  from  my  cousin,  she  that  "was  here 
last  week. 

[Not  proper,  oecause  the  nominative  pronoun  she  is  used  to  explain  the 
objective  noun  cousin.  But,  according  to  Rule  3d,  "  A  noun  or  a  personal 
pronoun,  used  to  explain  a  preceding  noun  or  pronoun,  is  put,  by  apposi- 
tion, in  the  same  case."  Therefore,  she  should  be  her ;  thus,  I  have  receiv 
ed  a  letter  from  my  cousin,  her  that  was  here  last  week.] 

The  book  is  a  present  from  my  brother  Richard,  he  that  keeps 
the  bookstore. 

I  am  going  to  see  my  friends  in  the  country,  they  that  we  met 
at  the  ferry. 

This  dress  was  maud  by  Catharine,  the  milliner,  she  that  we 
saw  at  work. 

Dennis,  the  gardener,  him  that  gave  me  the  tulips,  has  promis- 
ed mo  a  pinny. 


130  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

Resolve  me,  why  the  cottager  and  king, 
Him  whom  sea-sever'd  realms  obey,  and  him 
Who  steals  his  whole  dominion  from  the  waste, 
Repelling  winter  blasts  with  mud  and  straw, 
Disquieted  alike,  draw  sigh  for  sigh. 

RULE  IV.— ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives  relate  to  nouns  or  pronouns :  as,  c"  He  is  a 
wise  man,  though  he,  is  young" 

EXCEPTION    FIRST. 

An  adjective  sometimes  relates  to  a  phrase  or  sentence  which  is  made  the 
subject  of  an  intervening  verb;  as,  "  To  insult  the,  afflicted,  is  impious."— 
Dulwyn.  "  That  he  sfi&uld  refuse,  is  not  strange." 

EXCEPTION    SECOND. 

With  an  infinitive  or  a  participle  denoting  being  or  action  in  the  abstract, 
an  adjective  is  sometimes  also  taken  abstractly;  (that  is,  without  reference 
to  any  particular  noun,  pronoun,  or  other  subject ;)  as,  "To  be  sincere,  is  to 
be  wise,  innocent,  and  safe" — Hawkesworth.  "  Capacity  marks  the  abstract 
quality  of  being  able  to  receive  or  hold." — Crabb's  Synonymes. 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULE    IV. 

DBS.  1. — Adjectives  often  relate  to  nouns  understood;  as,  "The  nine," 
[muses.] — "Philip  was  one  of  the  seven"  [deacons.] — "He  came  unto  his 
own  [possessions,]  and  his  own  [men]  received  him  not." — "  The  Lord  your 
God  is  God  of  gods,  and  Lord  of  lords,  a  great  God,  a  mighty  [  God,]  and  a 
terrible"  [God.]— Deut.  x.  17. 

O"*s.  2. — In  as  much  as  qualities  belong  only  to  things,  most  grammarians 
teach  that  every  adjective  belongs  to  some  noun  expressed  or  understood ; 
and  suppose  a  countless  number  of  unnecessary  ellipses.  But  it  is  evi- 
dent that  in  the  construction  of  sentences,  adjectives  often  relate  imme- 
diately to  pronouns,  and,  through  them,  to  the  nouns  they  represent.  This 
is  still  more  obviously  the  case,  in  some  other  languages,  as  may  be  seen 
by  the  following  examples,  which  retain  something  of  the  Greek  idium : 
"  All  ye  are  brethren."—"  Whether  of  them  twain  did  the  will  of  his  father." 
-N.Ttst. 

OBS.  3. — When  an  adjective  follows  a  finite  verb,  and  is  not  followed  by 
a  noun,  it  generally  relates  to  the  subject  of  the  verb ;  as,  "  /  am  glad  that 
the  door  is  made  wide" — "  Every  thing  which  is  false,  vicious,  or  unwortJnj, 
is  despicable  to  him,  though  all  the  world  should  approve  it." — Spectator,  No. 
520.  Here  false,  vicious,  and  unworthy,  relate  to  which ;  and  despicable  re- 
lates to  thing. 

OES.  4. — When  an  adjective  follows  an  infinitive  or  a  participle,  the  noun 
or  pronoun  to  which  it  relates,  is  sometimes  before  it,  ara  sometimes  after  it, 
ana  often  considerably  remote ;  as,  "A  real  gentlemor*  cannot  but  practise 
those  virtues  which,  by  an  intimate  knowledge  o**  mankind,  he  has  found  to 
be  useful  to  them." — "  He  [a  melancholy  enthusiast]  thinks  himself  obliged 
in  duty  to  be  sad  and  disconsolate" — Addison.  "  He  is  scandalized  at  youth 
for  being  lively,  and  at  childhood  for  being  playful" — Id.  "  But  growing 
weary  of  one  who  almost  walked  him  out  of  breath,  he  Itft  him  for  Horace 
and  Anacreon." — Steele. 

OBS.  5 — Adjectives  preceded    by  the    definite  article,  are  often  used, 


SYNTAX. ADJECTIVES.  131 

by  ellipsis,  as  nouns.  They  designate  those  classes  of  objects  which  are 
characterized  by  the  qualities  they  express ;  and,  in  parsing,  the  noun  may 
be  supplied.  They  are  most  commonly  of  the  plural  number,  and  refer  to 
persons,  places,  or  things,  understood ;  as,  "The  careless  [persons]  and  the 
imprudent,  the  giddy  and  thejickle,  the  ungrateful  and  the  interested  every- 
where meet  us."  It  lair. 

"  Together  let  us  beat  this  ample  field, 
Try  what  the  open  [places],  what  the  covert,  yield." — Pope. 

OBS.  6. — The  adjective  is  generally  placed  immediately  before  its  noun ; 
ae,  "  Vain  man  !  is  grandeur  given  to  gay  attire  ?" — Beattie. 

OBS.  7. — Those  adjectives  which  relate  to  pronouns  most  commonly  fol* 
low  them;  as,  "  They  left  me  weary  on  a  grassy  turf." — Milton. 

OBS.  8. — In  the  following  instances,  the  adjective  is  placed  after  the  noun 
to  which  it  relates : 

1.  When  other  words  depend  on  the  adjective ;  as,  "  A  mind  conscious  of 
right" — "A  wall  three  feet  thick" 

"2.  When  the  quality  results  from  the  action  of  a  verb;  as,  "Virtue  ren- 
ders life  happy" 

3.  When  the  adjective  would  thus  be  more  clearly  distinctive  ;  as,  "  Good- 
ness infinite" — "Wisdom  unsearchable" 

4.  When  a  verb  comes  between  the  adjective  and  the  noun ;  as,  "  Truth 
stands  independent  of  all  external  things." — Burgh. 

OBS.  9. — In  some  cases,  the  adjective  may  either  precede  or  follow  the 
noun;  as, 

1.  In  poetry ;  as, 

"  WTilt  thou  to  the  isles  • 
Atlantic^  to  the  rich  Hesperian  clime, 
Fly  in  the  train  of  Autumn  V1 — Akenside. 

2.  In  some  technical  expressions ;  as,  "  A  notary  public,"  or,  "  A  public 
notary." 

3.  When  an  adverb  precedes  the  adjective;  as,  "A  Being  infinitely  wise," 
or,  "  An  infinitely  wise  Being." 

4.  When  several  adjectives  belong  to  the  same  noun ;  as,  "  A  woman, 
modest,  sensible,  and  virtuous,"  or,  "  A  modest,  sensible,  and  virtuous  wo- 
man." 

OBS.  10. — An  emphatic  adjective  may  be  placed  first  in  the  sentence, 
though  it  belong  after  the  verJ- ,  as,  "  Weighty  is  the  anger  of  the  right- 
eous?— Bible. 

OBS.  11. — By  an  ellipsis  of  the  noun,  an  adjective  with  a  preposition  be- 
fore it,  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  an  adverb  ;  as,  "  In  particular  ;"  that  is,  in 
a  particular  manner;  equivalent  to  "particularly."  In  parsing,  supply  the 
ellipsis.  [See  Obs.  %d,  under  Rule  xxii.] 

NOTES  TO  RULE  IV. 

NOTE  I. — Adjectives  that'  imply  unity  or  plurality,  must 
agree  with  their  nouns  in  number  ;  as,  That  sort,  those,  sorts. 

NOTE  II. — When  the  adjective  is  necessarily  plural,  the 
noun  should  be  made  so  too  ;  as,  "  Twenty  pounds" — not, 
"  Twenty  pound}'1 

OBS.  1. — In  some  peculiar  phrases  this  rule  appears  to  be  disregarded  ;  as, 
"  Two  hundred  pennyworth  of  bread  is  not  sufficient." — Johi,  vi.  7.  "  TVren- 
ty  tail  of  vessels" — "  A  hundred  head  of  cattle." 

OBSU  £<— To  denote  a  collective  number,  a  singular  adjective  may  pwv 


132  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

cede  a  plural  one;  as,  "  One  hundred  men" — " Every  six  weeks"—  "  On* 
seven  times." — Dan.  iii.  19. 

OBS.  3. — To  denote  plurality,  the  adjective  many  may,  in  like  manner, 
precede  an  or  a  with  a  singular  noun ;  as, 

"  Full  many  a  flower  is  born  to  blush  unseen, 
And  waste  its  sweetness  on  the  desert  air." — Gray. 

NOTE  III. — The  noun  means,  and  some  others,  have  the  same 
form  in  both  numbers  :  they  should  therefore  be  used  without 
change  of  number,  with  an  adjective  singular  or  plural,  as  the 
se^se  requires ;  as,  "  By  this  means  they  bear  witness  to  each 
other."—  Burke-.  Mean,  in  this  sense,  is  not  in  good  use. 

NOTE  IV. — The  comparative  degree  can  only  be  used  in 
reference  to  two  objects,  or  classes  of  objects ;  the  superlative 
compares  one  or  more  things  with  all  others  of  the  same  class, 
whether  few  or  many  :  as,  "  Edward  is  taller  than  James  ;  he 
is  the  largest  of  my  scholar." 

NOTE  V. — When  the  comparative  degree  is  employed,  the 
latter  term  of  comparison  should  never  i?iclud<e  the  former  ;  as, 
"  Iron  is  more  useful  than  all  tht  metals"  It  should  be,  "  than 
all  the  other  metals'''' 

NOTE  VI. — When  the  superlative  degree  is  employed,  the 
latter  term  of  comparison  should  never  exclude  the  former ;  as, 
"  A  fondness  for  show,  is,  of  all  other  follies,  the  most  vain." 
The  word  other  should  be  expunged. 

NOTE  VII. — Comparative  terminations,  and  adverbs  of  de- 
gree, should  not  be  applied  to  adjectives  that  are  not  susceptible 
of  comparison  ;  and  all  double  comparatives  and  superlatives 
should  be  avoided  ;  as,  "  So  universal  a  complaint :"  say,  "  so 
general" — u  Some  hss  nobler  plunder :"  say,  "  less  noble" — "  The 
most  straitest  sect :"  expunge  most. 

NOTE  VIII. — When  adjectives  are  connected  by  conjunctions, 
the  shortest  and  simplest  should  be  placed  first ;  as, "  He  is  older 
and  more  respectable  than  his  brother." 

NOTE  IX. — An  adjective  and  its  noun  may  be  taken  as  a 
compound  term,  to  which  other  adjectives  may  be  prefixed. 
The  most  distinguishing  quality  should  be  expressed  next  to 
the  noun  ;  as,  "  A  fine  young  man" — not,  '•  A  young  fine  man." 

NOTE  X. — In  prose,  the  use  of  adjectives  for  adverbs,  is  im- 
proper ;  as,  "  He  writes  elegant" — say,  "  elegantly" 

OBS  1. — In  poetry,  an  adjective  relating  to  the  noun  or  pronoun,  is  some- 
times elegantly  used  in  stead  of  an  adverb  qualifying  the  verb  or  participle  ; 
as, 

'  To  thee  I  bend  the  knee ;  to  thee  my  thoughts 
Continual  climb." — Thomson. 

OBS.  2. — In  order  to  determine,  in  difficult  cases,  whether  an  adjective 
or  an  adverb  is  required,  the  learner  should  carefully  attend  to  the  defi- 
nitions of  these  parts  of  speech,  and  consider  whether,  in  the  case 


SYNTAX. ADJECTIVES.  133 

in  question,  quality  or  manner  is  to  be  expressed:  if  the  former,  an  ad- 
ieotive  is  proper;  if  the  latter,  an  adverb.  The  following  examples  will 
illustrate  this  point:  "She  looks  cold; — she  looks  coldly  on  him." — "I 
s&t  silent;— 1  sat  silently  musing." — "  Stand  firm; — maintain  your  cause 
firmly." 

NOTE  XI. — The  pronoun  them  should  never  be  used  as  an 
adjective  in  lieu  of  those:  say,  "  I  bought  those  books" — not, 
:i  them  books."  This  is  a  vulgar  error. 

NOTE  XII. — When  the  pronominal  adjectives,  this  and  that, 
or  these  and  those,  are  contrasted  ;  this  or  these  should  represent 
the  latter  of  the  antecedent  terms,  and  that  or  those,  the  former ; 
as, 

"  And,  reason  raise  o'er  instinct  as  you  can, 
In  this  'tis  God  directs,  in  that  'tis  man." — Pope. 

"  Farewell  my  friends !  farewell  my  foes ! 
My  peace  with  these,  my  love  with  those !" — Burns. 

NOTE  XIII. — The  pronominal  adjectives  each,  one,  either^ 
and  neither,  are  always  in  the  third  person  singular ;  and,  when 
they  are  the  leading  words  in  their  clauses,  they  require  verbs 
and  pronouns,  to  agree  with  them  accordingly  :  as,  "  Each  of 
you  is  entitled  to  his  share." — "  Let  no  one  deceive  himself" 

NOTE  XIV. — The  pronominal  adjectives  either  and  neitlvet 
relate  to  two  things  only ;  when  more  are  referred  to,  any  and 
none  should  be  used  in  stead  of  them :  as,  "  Any  of  the  three" 
—not,  "  Either  of  the  three."—"  None  of  the  four"— not,  "  Nei- 
ther of  the  four." 

NOTE  XV. — Participial  adjectives  retain  the  termination,  but 
not  the  government,  of  participles ;  when,  therefore,  they  are 
followed  by  the  objective  case,  a  preposition  must  be  inserted 
to  govern  it :  as,  "  The  man  who  is  most  sparing  of  his  words, 
is  generally  most  disserving  of  attention." 

FALSE  SYNTAX  UNDER  RULE  IV. 

Examples  under  Note  1. 
Those  sort  of  people  you  will  find  to  be  troublesome. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  adjective  those  is  in  the  plural  number,  and  does 
not  agree  with  its  noun  sort,  which  is  singular.  But,  according  to  Note  1  st 
under  Rule  4th,  "  Adjectives  that  imply  unity  or  plurality,  must  agree  with 
their  nouns  in  number."  Therefore,  tfiose  should  be  that;  thus,  That  sort 
of  people  you  will  find  to  be  troublesome.] 

Things  of  these  sort  are  easily  understood. 
Who  broke  that  tongs  ? 
Where  did  I  drop  this  scissors  ? 
Bring  out  that  oats. 
Extinguish  that  embers. 

12 


i34  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

I  disregard  this  iniuutise. 

Those  kind  of  injuries  we  need  not  fear. 

What  was  the  height  of  those  gallows  which  Haman  erected  ? 

Under  Note  2, 

We  rode  about  ten  mile  an  hour. 
Tis  for  a  thousand  pound. — Cowper. 
How  deep  is  the  water  ?     About  six  fathom. 
The  lot  is  twenty-five  foot  wide. 
I  have  bought  eight  load  of  wood. 

Under  Note  3. 

Industry  is  one  mean  of  obtaining  competence. 
Scholasticus  sought  opportunities  to  display  his  learning ;  and, 

by  these  means,  rendered  himself  ridiculous. 
Caled  was  remarkable  for  his  modesty,  docility,  and  ingenuity  j 

and  by  this  means,  he  acquired  both  knowledge  and  fame. 

Under  Note  4. 

He  chose  the  latter  of  these  three. 
Trissyllables  are  often  accented  on  the  former  syllable. 
Which  are  the  two  more  remarkable  isthmuses  in  the  world  ? 

Under  Note  5. 

The  Scriptures  are  more  valuable  than  any  writings. 
The  Russian  empire  is  more  extensive  than  any  government 

in  the  world. 
Israel  loved  Joseph  more  than  all  his  children,  because  he  was 

the  son  of  his  old  age. — Gen.  xxxvii.  3. 

Under  Note  6. 

Of  all  other  ill  habits  idleness  is  the  most  incorrigible. 
Eve  was  the  fairest  of  all  her  daughters. 
Hope  is  the  most  constant  of  all  the  other  passions. 

Under  Note  7. 

That  opinion  is  too  universal  to  be  easily  corrected. 

Virtue  confers  the  supremest  dignity  upon  man. 

The  tongue  is  like  a  race-horse :  the  lesser  weight  it  carries, 
the  faster  it  runs. 

A  more  healthier  place  cannot  be  found. 

The  best  and  the  most  wisest  men  often  meet  with  discourage- 
ments. 

U?ider  Note  8. 

He  showed  us  a  more  agreeable  and  easier  way. 
This  was  the  most  convincing  and  plainest  argument. 
Some  of  the  most  moderate  and  wisest  of  the  senators. 


SYNTAX. ADJECTIVES.  135 

Phis  is  an  honourable  and  ancient  fraternity. 

There  vice  shall  meet  an  irrevocable  and  fatal  doom. 

Under  Note  9. 

He  is  a  young  industrious  man. 

She  has  a  new  elegant  house. 

The  two  first  classes  have  reid. 

The  oldest  two  sons  have  removed  to  the  westward. 

England  had  not  seen  such  an  other  king. — Goldsmlh. 

Under  Note  10. 

She  reads  well  and  writes  neat. 

He  was  extreme  prodigal. 

They  went,  conformable  to  their  engagement 

He  speaks  very  fluent,  and  reasons  justly. 

The  deepest  streams  run  the  most  silent. 

These  appear  to  be  finished  the  neatest. 

He  was  scarce  gone  when  you  arrived. 

I  am  exceeding  sorry  to  hear  of  your  misfortunes. 

The  work  was  uncommon  well  executed. 

This  is  not  such  a  large  cargo  as  the  last. 

Thou  knowst  what  a  good  horse  mine  is. 

I  cannot  think  so  mean  of  him. 

He  acted  much  wiser  than  the  others. 

Under  Note  11. 

I  bought  them  books  at  a  very  low  price. 

Go  and  tell  them  boys  to  be  still. 

I  have  several  copies :  thou  art  welcome  to  them  two. 

Which  of  them  three  men  is  the  most  useful  1 

Under  Note  12. 

Hope  is  as  strong  an  incentive  to  action,  as  fear :  this  if  the  an 

ticipation  of  good,  that  of  evil. 

The  poor  want  some  advantages  which  the  rich  enjoy ;  but  we 
should  not  therefore  account  those  happy,  and  these  miserable. 
Memory  and  forecast  just  returns  engage, 
This  pointing  back  to  youth,  that  on  to  age. 

Under  Note  13. 

Let  each  of  them  be  heard  in  their  turn. 
On  the  Lord's  day  every  one  of  us  Christians  keep  the  sab- 
bath.— Irenceus. 

Are  either  of  these  men  known  ? 
No :  neither  of  them  have  any  connexions  here. 


136  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Under  Note  14. 

Did  either  of  the  company  stop  to  assist  you  ? 
Here  are  six  ;  but  neither  of  them  will  answer. 

Under  Note  15. 

Some  crimes  are  thought  deserving  death. 

Rudeness  of  speech  is  very  unbecoming  a  gentleman. 

To  eat  with  unwashen  hands  was  disgusting  a  Jew. 
Leave  then  thy  joys,  unsuiting  such  an  age, 
Po  a  fresh  comer,  and  resign  the  stage. — Dryden. 

RULE  V.— PRONOUNS. 

A  Pronoun  must  agree  with  its  antecedent,  or  the  noun 
or  pronoun  which  it  represents,  in  person,  number,  and 
gender:  as,  "This  is  the  friend  of  whom  /spoke;  he  has 
just  arrived." — "This  is  the  book  which  I  bought;  it  is 
an  excellent  work." — "  Ye,  therefore,  who  love  mercy, 
teach  your  sons  to  love  it  too." — Cowper. 

EXCEPTION    FIRST. 

When  a  pronoun  stands  for  some  person  or  thing  indefinite,  or  unknown 
to  the  speaker,  this  rule  is  not  strictly  applicable;  because  the  person, 
number,  and  gender,  are  rather  assumed  than  regulated  by  an  antecedent: 
as,  "I  do  not  care  who  knows  it." — Ste&h.  "  Who  touched  me?  Tell  me 
who  it  was." 

EXCEPTION    SECOND. 

The  neuter  pronoun  it  may  be  applied  to  a  young  child,  or  to  other  crea- 
tures masculine  or  feminine  by  nature,  when  they  are  not  obviously  distin- 
guishable with  regard  to  sex ;  as,  "  Which  is  the  real  friend  to  the  child, 
the  person  who  gives  it  the  sweetmeats,  or  the  person  who,  considering 
only  its  health,  resists  Us  importunities  ?" — Opic.  "  He  loads  the  animal, 
he  is  showing  me,  with  so  many  trappings  and  collars,  that  I  cannot  dis- 
tinctly view  it" — Murray.  "  The  nightingale,  sings  most  sweetly  when  it 
sings  in  the  night." — Bucke. 

EXCEPTION    THIRD. 

The  pronoun  it  is  often  used  without  a  definite  reference  to  any  antece- 
dent, and  is  sometimes  a  mere  expletive;   as,   "Whether  she  grapple  it 
with  the  pride  of  philosophy." — Chalmers. 
"  Come,  and  trip  it  as  you  go 
On  the  light  fantastic  toe? — Milton. 

EXCEPTION    FOURTH. 

A  singular  antecedent  with  the  adjective  many,  sometimes  admits  a  plu- 
ral pronoun,  but  never  in  the  same  clause  ;  as, 

"  In  Hawick  twinkled  many  a  light, 
Behind  him  soon  they  set  in  night." — W.  Scott. 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULE    V. 
0B8.  i. — The  pronoun  ire  h  usod  by  the  speaker  to  represent  himself 


SYNTAX. PRONOUNS.  137 

and  others,  and  is  therefore  plural.  But  it  is  sometimes  used,  by  a  sort  of 
fiction,  in  stead  of  the  singular,  to  intimate  that  the  speaker  is  not  alone  in 
hie  opinions.  Monarchs  sometimes,  join  it  to  a  singular  noun  ;  as,  "  We 
Alexander,  Autocrat  of  all  the  Russias."  They  also  employ  the  compound 
our  self,  which  is  not  used  by  other  people. 

OBS.  2. — The  pronoun  you,  though  originally  and  properly  plural,  is 
now  generally  applied  alike  to  one  person  or  to  more.     [See   Obs. 
5  56.  ~ 


e  i>6.1  This  usage,  however  it  may  seem  to  involve  a  solecism,  is  es- 
ished  by  that  authority  against  which  the  mere  grammarian  has 
scarcely  a  right  to  remonstrate.  We  do  not,  however,  think  it  necessary 
or  advisable,  to  encumber  the  conjugations,  as  some  have  done,  by  intro- 
ducing this  pronoun  and  the  corresponding  form  of  the  verb,  as  singular. 
It  is  manifestly  better  to  say  that  the  plural  is  used  for  the  singular,  by  the 
figure  enallage.  This  change  has  introduced  the  compound  yourself,  which 
is  used  in  stead  of  thyself. 

OBS.  3. — The  general  usage  of  the  French  is  like  that  of  the  English, 
you  for  tiiou;  but  Spanish,  Portuguese,  and  German  politeness  requires 
that  the  third  person  be  substituted  for  the  second.  And,  when  they 
would  be  very  courteous,  the  Germans  use  also  the  plural  for  the  singular 
as  they  for  tJum.  Thus  they  have  a  fourfold  method  of  addressing  a  person . 
as,  they,  denoting  the  highest  degree  of  respect ;  he,  a  less  degree ;  you,  a 
degree  still  less ;  and  thou,  none  at  all,  or  absolute  reproach.  Yet,  even 
umong  them,  the  last  is  used  as  a  term  of  endearment  to  children,  and  of 
veneration  to  God ! 

OBS.  4. — Such  perversions  of  the  original  and  proper  use  of  language, 
are  doubtless  matters  of  considerable  moment.  These  changes  in  the  use 
of  the  pronouns  being  evidently  a  sort  of  complimentary  fictions,  some  have 
made  it  a  matter  of  conscience  to  abstain  from  them,  and  have  published 
their  reasons  for  so  doing.  But  the  moral  objections  which  may  lie  against 
such  or  any  other  applications  of  words,  do  not  come  within  the  gramma- 
rian's province.  Let  every  one  consider  for  himself  the  moral  bearing  of 
what  he  otters.  [See  Matthew,  xii.  36  and  37.] 

OBS.  5. — When  a  pronoun  represents  the  name  of  an  inanimate  object 
personified,  it  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in  the  figurative,  and  not  in  the 
literal  sense;  [See  the  figure  Syllepsis,  in  PART  iv.]  as, 

"  Penance  dreams  her  life  away." — Rogers. 

11  Grim  Darkness  furls  his  leaden  shroud." — Id. 


OBS.  6. — When  the  antecedent  is  applied  metaphorically,  the  pronoun 
agrees  with  it  in  its  literal,  and  not  in  its  figurative  sense ;  as,  "  Pitt  was  the 
pillar  which  upheld  the  state." — "  The  monarch  of  mountains  rears  his 
snowy  head."  [See  Figures,  in  PART  iv.] 

OBS.  7. — When  the  antecedent  is  put  by  metonymy  for  a  noun  of  differ- 
ent properties,  the  pronoun  sometimes  agrees  with  it  in  the  figurative,  an*' 
sometimes  in  the  literal  sense ;  as, 

"  The  wolf,  who  [that]  from  the  nightly  fold, 
Fierce  drags  the  bleating  prey,  ne'er  drunk  her  milk, 
Nor  wore  tier  warming  neece." — Thomson. 

"  That  each  may  fill  the  circle  mark'd  by  Heaven, 
Who  sees  with  equal  eye,  as  God  of  all, 
A  hero  perish  or  a  sparrow  fall." — Pope. 

"  And  heaven  beholds  its  imuge  in  his  breast." — Id. 

OBS.  8. — When  the  antecedent  is  put  by  synecdoche  for  more  or  less  than 
it  literally  signifies,  tho  p»  ^  n\n  agrees  with  it  in  the  figurative,  and  not  ID 
the  literal  sense  ;  as, 

12* 


138  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

"A  dauntless  soul  erect,  who  smiled  on  death." — Tliomson. 

"  But,  to  the  generous  still  improving  mind, 
That  gives  the  hopeless  heart  to  sing  for  joy. 
To  him  the  long  review  of  ordered  life 
Is  inward  rapture  only  to  be  felt." — Id. 

OBS.  9. — Pronouns  usually  follow  the  words  which  they  re-present ;  but 
this  order  is  sometimes  reversed:  as,  "  Whom  the  cap  fits,  let  him  put  it  on." 
— "Hark!  they  whisper;  angels  say,"  &c. 

OBS.  10. — A  pronoun  sometimes  represents  a  phrase  or  sentence;  and  in 
this  case,  the  pronoun  is  always  in  the  third  person  singular  neuter :  as, 
11  She  is  very  handsome;  and  she  has  the  misfortune  to  know  it" — "Yet 
men  can  go  on  to  vilify  or  disregard  Christianity ;  which  is  to  talk  and  act  as 
if  they  had  a  demonstration  of  its  falsehood." — Bp.  Butler. 

OBS.  11. — When  a  pronoun  follows  two  words,  having  a  neuter  verb  be- 
tween them,  and  both  referring  to  the  same  thing,  it  may  represent  either  of 
them,  but  not  icith  the  same  meaning;  as,  1.  "I  am  the  man  who  command:" 
here,  who  command  belongs  to  the  subject  /,  and  the  meaning  is,  "I  who 
command,  am  the  man."  (The  latter  expression  places  the  relative  nearer 
to  its  antecedent,  and  is  therefore  preferable.)  2.  "  I  am  the  man  who  com- 
mands :"  here,  wlw  commands  belongs  to  the  predicate  man,  and  the  mean- 
ing is,  "I  am  the  commander." 

OBS.  12. — After  the  expletive  it,  which  may  be  employed  to  introduce  a 
noun  or  pronoun  of  any  person,  number,  or  gender,  the  above-mentioned 
distinction  is  generally  disregarded  :  and  the  relative  is  made  to  agree  with 
the  latter  word :  as,  "  It  is  not  I  that  do  it."  The  propriety  of  this  construc- 
tion is  questionable. 

OBS.  13. — The  pronoun  it  frequently  refers  to  something  mentioned  in 
the  subsequent  part  of  the  sentence.  This  pronoun  is  a  necessary  expletive 
at  the  commencement  of  a  sentence  in  which  the  verb  is  followed  by  o 
clause  which,  by  a  transposition,  may  be  made  the  subject  of  the  verb;  as, 
" It  is  impossible  to  please  every  one" — "It  was  requisite  that  the  papers 
should  be  sent." 

OES.  14. — Relative  and  interrogative  pronouns  are  placed  at  or  near 
the  beginning  of  their  own  clauses  ;  and  the  learner  must  observe  that, 
through  all  their  cases,  they  almost  invariably  retain  this  situation  in  the 
sentence,  and  are  often  found  before  their  verbs  when  the  order  of  construc- 
tion would  reverse  this  arrangement :  as,  "He  who  preserves  me,  to  whom 
I  owe  my  being,  whose  I  am,  and  whom  I  serve,  is  eternal." — Mur- 
ray. "  Who  can  tell  us  who  they  are  V1 — Pope.  "  He  whom  you  seek." — 
Lowth. 

OBS.  15. — Every  relative  pronoun,  being  the  representative  of  some 
antecedent  word  or  phrase,  derives  from  this  relation  its  person,  number, 
and  gender,  but  not  its  case.  By  taking  an  other  relation  of  case,  it  helps 
to  form  an  other  clause ;  and,  by  retaining  the  essential  meaning  of  its 
antecedent,  serves  to  connect  this  clause  to  that  in  which  the  antecedent 
is  found.  Relatives,  therefore,  cannot  be  used  in  an  independent  simple 
sentence,  nor  with  a  subjunctive  verb;  but,  like  other  connectives,  they 
belong  at  the  head  of  a  clause  in  a  compound  sentence,  and  they  exclude 
conjunctions,  except  when  two  such  clauses  are  to  be  joined  together:  as, 
"  Blessed  is  the  man,  who  feareth  the  Lord,  and  who  kecpeth  his  command- 
ments." 

OBS.  16. — The  special  rules  commonly  given  by  the  grammarians,  for 
the  construction  of  relatives,  are  both  unnecessary  and  faulty.  It  usually 
takes  two  rules  to  parse  a  pronoun;  one  for  its  agreement  with  the  noun 
or  nouns  which  it  represents,  and  the  other  for°its  case.  But  neither 
relatives,  nor  interrogatives  require  any  special  rules  for  the  construction 


SYNTAX. PRONOUNS,  139 

of  their  cases,  because  the  general  rules  for  the  cases  apply  to  pronouns  as 
well  as  to  nouns.  And  both  relatives  and  interrogativcs  generally  admit 
every  construction  common  to  nouns,  except  apposition.  Let  the  learner 
parse  the  following  examples : 

1.  Nominatives  by  Rule  2d ;  "I  who  write — Thou  who  writest — He  WJ/IT 
writes—The  animal  which  runs." — Dr.  Adam.     "Hetfto^  sparcth  his  rod 
hateth  his  son." — Solomon.     "  He  who  does  any  thing  which  he  knows  it 
wrong,  is  a  sinner." — "  What  will  become  of  us  without  religion  ?" — Blair. 
"  Here  I  determined  to  wait  the  hand  of  death ;  which  I  hope,  when  at  last 
it  comes,  will  fall  lightly  upon  me." — Dr.  Johnson.     "  Wliat  is  sudden  and 
unaccountable  serves  to  confound." — Crabb.     "  They  only  are  wise  wfw  are 
wise  to  salvation." — Goodwin. 

2.  Nominatives  by  Rule  21  st;  "  Who  art  thoul" — "  What  were  we!" — 
Bible.     "  Do  not  tell  them  wlw  I  am." — "  Let  him  be  who  he  may,  he  is  not 
the  honest  fellow  that  he  seemed." — "  The  general  conduct  of  mankind  is 
neither  what  it  was  designed,  nor  what  it  ought  to  be." 

3.  Nominatives  absolute  by  Rule  25th;  "  There  are  certain  bounds  to  im- 
prudence and  misbehaviour,  which  being  transgressed,   there   remains  no 
place  for  repentance  in  the  natural  course  of  things." — Bp.  Butler.     This 
construction  of  the  relative  is  a  Latinism,  and  very  seldom  used  by  the  best 
English  writers. 

4.  Possessives  by  Rule  19th;  "  The  chief  man  of  the  island,  whose  name 
was  Publius." — Acts.     "Despair,  a  cruel  tyrant,  from  whose  prisons  none 
can  escape." — Dr.  Johnson.     "  To  contemplate  on  Him  whose  yoke  is  easy 
and  whose  burden  is  light." — Steele. 

5.  Objectives  by  Rule  %Qth;  "Those  whom  she  persuaded." — Dr.  Johnson. 
"The  cloak  that  1  left  at  Troas." — St.  Paul.     "  By  the  things  which  he  suf- 
fered."— Id,     "  A  man  whom  there  is  reason  to  suspect" — "  What  are  we  to 
doT' — Burke.  "  Love  refuses  nothing  that  love  sends." — Gurnall.  "  Whom- 
soever you  please  to  appoint." — Lowth.  "  Whatsoever  he  doeth,  shall  prosper." 
— Bible.     "  What  we  are  afraid  to  do  before  men,  we  should  be  afraid  to 
think  before  God." — Sibs.     "Shall  I  hide  from  Abraham  that  thing  which 
I  do  V'—Gen.  xviii.  32.     "  Shall  I  hide  from  Abraham  wlwt  I  do  ?"— "  Call 
imperfection  what  thou  fanciest  such." — Pope. 

6.  Objectives  by  Rule  2\.st;  "  He  is  not  the  man  that  I  took  him  to  be." 
— "  Whom  did  you  suppose  me  to  beT' — "Let  the  lad  become  what  you 
wish  him  to  be." 

7.  Objectives  by  Rule  %2d ;  "  To  whom  shall  we  go  7" — Bible.     "  The  laws 
by  which  the  world  is  governed,  are  general." — Butler.     "  Wliom  he  looks 
upon  as  his  defender." — Addison.   "  That  secret  heaviness  of  heart  which  un- 
thinking men  are  subject  to." — Id.     "  I  cannot  but  think  the  loss  of  such 
talents  05  the  man  of  whom  I  am.  speaking  was  master  of,  a  more  melan- 
choly instance." — Steele. 

fre- 
nis- 
.egant;  as,  "This  is  the 

worst  thing  [that]  could  happen."     The  latter  ellipsis  sometimes  occurs  in 

poetry;  as, 

"  In  this,  'tis  God — directs,  in  that  'tis  man." — Pope. 

OBS.  18. — The  antecedent  is  sometimes  suppressed,  especially  in  poetry; 
AS,  "  How  shall  I  curse  [him  or  tliem]  whom  God  hath  not  cursed." — Numb. 
xxiii.  8. 

[He]  "  Who  lives  to  nature,  rarely  can  be  poor; 
He]  Who  lives  to  fancy,  never  can  be  rich." — Young. 

OBS.  19. —  What  is  sometimes  used  adverbially;  as,  "Though  I  fo> 
bear,  what  am  I  eased ]" — Job,  xvi.  6, — that  is,  how  much?  or  wherein? 


140  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

"The  enemy  having  his  country  wasted,  what  by  himself  and  what  by 

the  soldiers,  findeth  succour  in  no  place." — Spenser.     Here  what  means 

partly, — "  wasted  partly  by  himself  and  partly  by  the  soldiers." 

OBS.  20. —  What  is  sometimes  used  as  a  mere  interjection ;  as, 

"  Wliat!  this  a  sleeve  1  'tis  like  a  demi-cannon." — Shakspearc. 
"  What!  can  you  lull  the  winged  winds  asleep '?"  —Campbell. 

NOTES  TO  RULE  V. 

NOTE  I. — A  pronoun  should  not  be  introduced  in  connexion 
with  words  that  belong  more  properly  to  the  antecedent,  or  to 
an  other  pronoun  ;  as, 

"  My  banks  they  are  furnished  with  bees." — Shenstone. 

OBS. — This  is  only  an  example  of  pleonasm;  which  is  allowable  and  fre- 
quent in  animated  discourse,  but  inelegant  in  any  other.  [See  Pleonasm,  in 

PART  IV.] 

NOTE  II. — A  change  of  number  in  the  second  person,  is  in- 
elegant and  improper  ;  as,  "  You  wept,  and  I  for  thee" 

OBS. — Poets  have  sometimes  adopted  this  solecism,  to  avoid  the  harsh- 
ness of  the  verb  in  the  second  person  singular ;  as, 

"  As,  in  that  lov'd  Athenian  bower, 
You  learned  an  all  commanding  power, 
Thy  mimic  soul,  O  nymph  endear'd ! 
Can  well  recall  what  then  it  heard." — Collins. 

NOTE  III. — The  relative  who  is  applied  only  to  persons,  and 
to  animals  personified  ;  and  which,  to  brute  animals  and  inani- 
mate things:  as,  "  The  judge  who  presided" — "The  old  crab 
who  advised  the  young  one" — "  The  horse  which  ran" — "  The 
book  which  was  given  me." 

OBS. — Which,  as  well  as  wlw,  was  formerly  applied  to  persons;  as,  "Our 
Father  which  art  in  heaven." — Bible.  It  may  still  be  applied  to  a  young 
child;  as,  "The  child  which  died." — Or  even  to  adults,  when  they  are 
spoken  of  without  regard  to  a  distinct  personality  or  identity ;  as,  "  Which 
of  you  will  go  V — "  Crabb  knoweth  not  which  is  which,  himself  or  his  paro- 
dist."—!^ Hunt. 

NOTE  IV. — Nouns  of  multitude,  unless  they  express  persons 
directly  as  such,  should  not  be  represented  by  the  relative  who : 
to  say,  "  The  family  whom  I  visited,"  would  hardly  be  proper  ; 
that  would  here  be  better.  When  such  nouns  are  strictly  of 
the  neuter  gender,  which  may  represent  them  ;  as,  "  The  com- 
mittees which  were  appointed." 

NOTE  V. — A  proper  name  taken  merely  as  a  name,  or  an 
appellative  taken  in  any  sense  not  strictly  personal,  must  be 
represented  by  which,  and  not  by  who ;  as,  "  Herod — which  is 
but  another  name  for  cruelty." — "  In  every  prescription  of 
duty,  God  proposeth  himself  as  a  rewarder  ;  which  he  is  only 
to  those  that  please  him/5 — Dr.  J.  Owen. 

NOTE  VL — The  relative  that  may  be  applied  either  to  per- 


SYNTAX. PRONOrjNS.  141 

eons  or  to  things.  In  the  following  cases  it  is  generally  pre- 
ferable to  who  or  which,  unless  it  be  necessary  to  use  a  prepo* 
sition  before  the  relative : — 1.  After  an  adjective*  of  the  super- 
lative degree ;  as.  "  He  was  thzjirst  that  came." — 2.  After  the 
adjective  same;  as,  "  This  is  the  same  person  that  1  met  before." 
— 3.  After  the  antecedent  who;  as,  "  Who  that  has  common 
sense,  can  think  so  ?" — 4.  After  a  joint  reference  to  persons 
and  things  ;  as,  "  He  spoke  of  the  men  and  things  that  he  had 
seen." — 5.  After  an  unlimited  antecedent,  which  the  relative 
and  its  verb  are  to  restrict;  as,  "Thoughts  that  breathe,  and 
words  that  burn." — G.  After  an  antecedent  introduced  by  the 
expletive  it ;  as,  "  It  is  you  that  command." — "  It  was  I  tJiat 
&id  it." — 7.  And,  in  general,  where  the  propriety  of  who  or 
which  is  doubtful ;  as,  "  The  little  child  that  was  placed  in  the 
midst." 

NOTE  VH. — When  several  relative  clauses  come  in  succes- 
sion, and  have  a  similar  dependence  in  respect  to  the  antece- 
dent, the  same  pronoun  must  be  employed  in  each ;  as,  a  O 
thou  who  art,  and  who  wast,  and  who  art  to  come  !" — u  And 
they  shall  spread  them  before  the  sun,  and  the  moon,  and  all 
the  host  of  heaven,  whom  they  have  loved,  and  whom  they  have 
served,  and  after  whom  they  have  walked,  and  whom  they  have 
sought,  and  whom  they  have  worshipped." — Jer.  viii.  2. 

NOTE  VIII. — The  relative,  and  the  preposition  governing  it, 
should  not  be  omitted,  when  they  are  necessary  to  give  connex- 
ion to  the  sentence  ;  as,  "  He  is  still  in  the  situation  [in  which] 
you  saw  him." 

NOTE  IX. — An  adverb  should  not  be  used  where  a  preposi- 
tion and  a  relative  pronoun  would  better  express  the  relation  of 
the  terms  ;  as,  "  A  cause  where  [for  in  which]  justice  is  so  much 
concerned." 

NOTE  X. — Where  a  pronoun  or  a  pronominal  adjective  will 
not  express  the  meaning  clearly,  the  noun  must  be  repeated,  or 
inserted  in  stead  of  it.  Example  :  "  We  see  the  beautiful 
variety  of  colour  in  the  rainbow,  and  are  led  to  consider  the 
cause  of  it" — [that  variety.] 

NOTE  XL — To  prevent  ambiguity  or  obscurity,  the  relative 
should  be  placed  as  near  as  possible  to  the  antecedent.  The 
following  sentence  is  therefore  faulty :  "  He  is  like  a  beast  of 
prey,  that  is  void  of  compassion."  Better  :  "  He  that  is  void  of 
compassion,  is  like  a  beast  of  prey." 

NOTE  XII. — The  pronoun  what  should  never  be  used  in 
stead  of  the  conjunction  that ;  as,  "  He  will  not  believe  but 
what  I  am  to  blame."  What  should  be  that. 

NOTE  XIII. — A  pronoun  should  not  be  used  to  represent  an 
adjective ;  because  it  can  neither  express  a  concrete  quality  as 


142  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

such,  nor  convert  it  properly  into  an  abstract.  Example  :  "  Be 
attentive ;  without  which  you  will  learn  nothing-."  Better  • 
"  Be  attentive  ;  for  without  attention  you  will  learn  nothing." 

FALSE  SYNTAX  UNDER  RULE  V. 

No  person  should  be  censured  for  being  careful  of  their  rep- 
utation. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  their  is  of  the  plural  number,  and 
does  not  correctly  represent  its  antecedent  noun  person,  which  is  of  the 
third  person,  singular,  masculine.  But  according  to  Rule  5th.  "  A  pro- 
noun must  agree  with  its  antecedent,  or  the  noun  or  pronoun  which  it 
represents,  in  person,  number,  and  gender."  Therefore,  their  should  be 
his ;  thus,  No  person  should  be  censured  for  being  careful  of  his  reputa- 
tion.] 

Every  one  must,  judge  of  their  own  feelings. — Byron. 

Can  any  person,  on  their  entrance  into  the  world,  be  fully  se- 

\  cure  that  they  shall  not  be  deceived  ? 
He  cannot  see  one  in  prosperity  without  envying  them. 
I  gave  him  oats,  but  he  would  not  eat  it. 
Rebecca  took  goodly  raiment,  and  put  them  on  Jacob. 
Take  up  the  tongs,  and  put  it  in  its  place. 
Let  each  esteem  others  better  than  themselves. 
A  person  may  make  themselves  happy  without  riches. 
Every  man  should  try  to  provide  for  themselves. 
The  mind  of  man  should  not  be  left  without  something  on 
which  to  employ  his  energies. 

An  idler  is  a  watch  that  wants  both  hands, 
As  useless  if  he  goes,  as  when  he  stands. 

Under  Note  1. 

Many  words  they  darken  speech. 

These  praises  he  then  seemed  inclined  to  retract  them. 

These  people  they  are  all  very  ignorant. 

Asa  his  heart  was  perfect  with  the  Lord. 

Who,  in  stead  of  going  about  doing  good,  they  are  perpetually 
intent  upon  doing  mischief. — Tillotson. 

Whom  ye  delivered  up,  and  denied  him  in  the  presence  of  Pon- 
tius Pilate. — Acts,  iii.  13. 

Whom,  when  they  had  washed,  they  laid  her  in  an  upper 
chamber. — Acts,  ix.  37. 

What  I  have  mentioned,  there  are  witnesses  of  the  fact. 

What  he  said,  he  is  now  sorry  for  it. 

The  empress,  approving  these  conditions,  she  immediately  rati- 
fied them. 

This  incident,  though  it  appears  improbable,  yet  I  cannot  doubt 
the  author's  veracity. 


SYNTAX. PRONOUNS.  143 

Under  Note  2. 

Thou  art  my  father's  brother,  else  would  1  reprove  you. 
Your  weakness  is  excusable,  but  thy  wickedness  is  not. 
Now,  my  son,  I  forgive  thee,  and  freely  pardon  your  fault. 

You  draw  the  inspiring  breath  of  ancient  song, 
Till  nobly  rises  emulous  thy  own. — Thomson. 

Under  Note  3. 

This  is  the  horse  whom  my  father  imported. 
Those  are  the  birds  whom  we  call  gregarious. 
He  has  two  brothers,  one  of  which  I  am  acquainted  with. 
What  was  that  creature  whom  Job  called  leviathan  ? 
Those  which  desire  to  be  safe,  should  be  careful  to  do  that 

which  is  right. 
A  butterfly  which  thought  himself  an  accomplished  traveller 

happened  to  light  upon  a  bee-hive. 
There  was  a  certain  householder  which  planted  a  vineyaH 

Under  Note  4. 

He  instructed  and  fed  the  crowds  who  surrounded  him. 

The  court,  who  has  great  influence  upon  the  public  manner^, 

ought  to  be  very  exemplary. 
The  wild  tribes  who  inhabit  the  wilderness,  contemplate  the 

ocean  with  astonishment,  and  gaze  upon  the  starry  heavens 

with  delight. 

Under  Note  5. 

Judas  (who  is  now  an  other  name  for  treachery)  betrayed  hia 

master  with  a  kiss. 
He  alluded  to  Phalaris, — who  is  a  name  for  all  that  is  cruel, 

Under  Note  6. 

He  was  the  first  who  entered. 

He  was  the  drollest  fellow  whom  I  ever  saw. 

This  is  the  same  man  whom  we  saw  before. 

Who  is  she  who  comes  clothed  in  a  robe  of  green  ? 

The  wife  and  fortune  whom  he  gained,  did  not  aid  him. 

Men  who  are  avaricious,  never  have  enough. 

All  which  I  have,  is  thine. 

Was  it  thou,  or  the  wind,  who  shut  the  door  ? 

It  was  not  I  who  shut  it. 

The  babe  who  was  in  the  cradle,  appeared  to  be  healthy. 

Under  Note  7. 

He  is  a  man  that  knows  what  belongs  to  good  manners,  and 
who  will  not  do  a  dishonourable  act 


144  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

The  friend  who  was  here,  and  that  entertained  us  so  much,  will 

never  be  able  to  visit  us  again. 
The  curiosities  which  he  has  brought  home,  and  that  we  shall 

have  the  pleasure  of  seeing,  are  said  to  be  very  rare. 

Under  Note  8. 

Observe  them  in  the  order  they  stand. 
We  proceeded  immediately  to  the  place  we  were  directed. 
My  companion  remained  a  week  in  the  state  I  left  him. 
The  way  I  do  it,  is  this. 

Under  Note  9. 

Remember  the  condition  whence  thou  art  rescued. 

[  know  of  no  rule  how  it  may  be  done. 

He  drew  up  a  petition,  where  he  too  freely  represented  his  own 

merits. 
The  hour  is  hastening,  when  whatever  praise  or  censure  I  have 

acquired,  will  be  remembered  with  equal  .indifference, 

Under  Note  10. 
tony  will  acknowledge  the  excellence  of  religion,  who  cannot 

tell  wherein  it  consists. 

E  v*ry  difference  of  opinion  is  not  that  of  principle. 
Next  to  the  knowledge  of  God,  this  of  ourselves  seems  most 

worthy  of  our  endea»vour. 

Under  Note  11. 

Thou  art  thyself  the  man  that  committed  the  act,  who  hast  thus 

condemned  it. 
There  is  a  certain  majesty  in  simplicity,  which  is  far  above  tho 

quaintness  of  wit. 

Thou  hast  no  right  to  judge  who  art  a  party  concerned. 
It  is  impossible  for  such  men  as  those,  ever  to  determine  this 

question,  who  are  likely  to  get  the  appointment. 
There  are  millions  of  people  in  the  empire  of  China,  whose 

support  is  derived  almost  entirely  from  rice. 

Under  Note  12. 

I  had  no  idea  but  what  the  story  was  true. 
The  post-boy  is  not  so  weary  but  what  he  can  whistle. 
He  had  no  intimation  but  what  the  men  were  honest. 

Under  Note  13. 
Some  men  are  too  ignorant  to  be  humble  ;  without  which  there 

can  be  no  docility. — Berkley. 
Judas  declared  him  innocent ;  which  he  could  not  be,  had  he 

in  any  respect  deceived  the  disciples. — Porteus. 


SYNTAX. PRONOUNS.  145 

Be  accurate  in  all  you  say  or  do  ;  for  it  is  important  in  all  the 
concerns  of  life. 

Every  law  supposes  the  transgressor  to  be  wicked  ;  which  in- 
deed he  is,  if  the  law  is  just. 

RULE  VI.— PRONOUNS. 

When  the  antecedent  is  a  collective  noun  conveying  the 
idea  of  plurality,  the  Pronoun  must  agree  with  it  in  the 
plural  number ;  as,  "  The  council  were  divided  in  their 
sentiments." 

OBSERVATION    ON    RULE    VI. 

Most  collective  nouns  of  the  neuter  gender,  may  take  the  regular  plural 
form,  and  be  represented  by  a  pronoun  in  the  third  person,  plural,  neuter; 
as,  "  The  nations  will  enforce  their  laws."  This  construction  comes  under 
Rule  5th.  To  Rule  6th  there  are  no  exceptions. 

NOTE  TO  RULE  VI. 

A  collective  noun  conveying  the  idea  of  unity,  requires  a 
pronoun  in  the  third  person,  singular,  neuter,  agreeably  to  Rule 
5th ;  as,  "  The  nation  will  enforce  its  laws." 

FALSE  SYNTAX  UNDER  RULE  VI. 

The  jury  will  be  confined  until  it  agrees  on  a  verdict. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  it  is  of  the  singular  number,  and 
does  not  correctly  represent  its  antecedent  jury,  which  is  a  collective 
noun,  conveying  the  idea  of  plurality.  But,  according  to  Rule  6th, 
"  When  the  antecedent  is  a  collective  noun  conveying  the  idea  of  plurality, 
the  pronoun  must  agree  with  it  in  the  plural  number."  Therefore,  it 
should  be  they;  thus,  The  jury  will  be  confined  till  they  agree  on  a 
verdict.] 

In  youth,  the  multitude  eagerly  pursue  pleasure,  as  if  it  were 
its  chief  good. 

The  council  were  not  unanimous,  and  it  separated  without 
coming  to  any  determination. 

The  committee  were  divided  in  sentiment,  and  it  referred  the 
business  to  the  general  meeting. 

There  happened  to  the  army  a  very  strange  accident,  which 
put  it  in  great  consternation. 

The  enemy  were  not  able  to  support  the  charge,  and  he  dis- 
persed and  fled. 

The  defendant's  counsel  had  a  difficult  task  imposed  on  it. 

The  board  of  health  publish  its  proceedings. 

I  saw  all  the  species  thus  delivered  from  its  sorrows. 

Under  Note  to  Rule  6tk. 

I  saw  the  whole  species  thus  delivered  from  their  sorrows 
This  court  is  famous  for  the  justice  of  their  decisions. 
13 


146  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

The  convention  then  resolved  themselves  into  a  committee  of 

the  whole. 
The  crowd  was  so  great  that  the  judges  with  difficulty  made 

their  way  through  them. 

RULE  YIL— PRONOUNS. 

When  a  Pronoun  has  two  or  more  antecedents  connect- 
ed by  and,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the  plural  num- 
ber :  as,  "  James  and  John  will  favour  us  with  their  com- 


pany." 


EXCEPTION    FIRST. 


When  two  or  more  antecedents  connected  by  and,  serve  merely  to 
describe  one  person  or  thing ;  they  are  in  apposition,  and  do  not  require 
a  plural  pronoun  :  as,  "  This  great  philosopher  and  statesman  continued  in 
public  life  till  his  eighty-second  year." — "  The  same  Spirit,  light,  and  life, 
which  enlighteneth,  also  sanctilieth,  and  there  is  not  an  other." — Pen- 
ington. 


EXCEPTION    SECOND. 


When  two  antecedents  connected  by  and,  are  emphatically  distinguished ; 
they  belong  to  different  propositions,  and  (if  singular)  do  not  require  a  plu- 
ral pronoun  :  as,  "  The  butler,  and  not  the  baker,  was  restored  to  his  office." 
— "  The  good  man,  and  the  sinner  too,  shall  have  his  reward." — "  Truth,  and 
truth  only,  is  worth  seeking  for  its  own  sake." 

EXCEPTION    THIRD. 

When  two  or  more  antecedents  connected  by  and,  are  preceded  by  the 
adjective  each,  every,  or  no ;  they  are  taken  separately,  and  do  not  require  a 
plural  pronoun:  as,  "  Every  plant  and  every  tree  produces  others  after  its 
kind." — "  It  is  the  original  cause  of  every  reproach  and  distress  which  has  at- 
tended the  government." — Jwaus. 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULE    VII. 

OBS.  1. — When  the  antecedents  are  of  different  persons,  the  first  person  is 
preferred  to  the  second,  and  the  second  to  the  third  :  as,  "  John,  and  thou, 
and  I,  are  attached  to  our  country." — "  John  and  thou  are  attached  to  your 
country." 

OBS.  2. — The  gender  of  pronouns,  except  in  the  third  person  singular,  is 
distinguished  only  by  their  antecedents.  In  expressing  that  of  a  pronoun 
which  has  antecedents  of  different  genders,  the  masculine  should  be  prefer- 
red to  the  feminine,  and  the  feminine  to  the  neuter. 

FALSE  SYNTAX  UNDER  RULE  VII. 
Discontent  and  sorrow  manifested  itself  in  his  countenance. 

[Not  pror>er,  because  the  pronoun  itself  is  of  the  singular  number,  and 
does  not  correctly  represent  its  two  antecedents,  discontent  and  sorrow, 
which  are  cmnccted  \  y  and,  and  taken  conjointly.  But,  according  to  Rule 
7th,  "  When  a  prono  in  has  two  or  more  antecedents  connected  by  and,  it 
must  ag?w  with  them  in  the  plural  number."  Therefore,  itself  should  ba 
thcmfdves  ;  thus,  Discontent  and  sorrow  manifested  themselves  in  his  coun- 
tenance.] 


SYNTAX. PRONOUNS.  147 

Your  levity  and  heedlessness,  if  it  continue,  will  prevent  all 

substantial  improvement. 
Poverty  and  obscurity  will  oppress  him  only  who  esteems  it 

oppressive. 
Good  sense  and  refined  policy  are  obvious  to  few,  because  it 

cannot  be  discovered  but  by  a  train  of  reflection. 
Avoid  haughtiness  of  behaviour,  and  affectation  of  manners  :  it 

implies  a  want  of  solid  merit. 
If  love  and  unity  continue,  it  will  make  you  partakers  of  one 

an  other's  joy. 
Suffer  not  jealousy  and  distrust  to  enter  :  it  will  destroy,  like  a 

canker,  every  germ  of  friendship. 
Hatred  and  animosity  are  inconsistent  with  Christian  charity  i 

guard,  therefore,  against  the  slightest  indulgence  of  it. 
Every  man  is  entitled  to  liberty  of  conscience,  and  freedom  of 

opinion,  if  he  does  not  pervert  it  to  the  injury  of  others. 

RULE  YIIL— PRONOUNS, 

When  a  Pronoun  has  two  or  more  singular  antecedents 
connected  by  or  or  nor,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the 
singular  number :  as,  "  James  or  John  will  favour  us  with 
his  company." 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULE    VIII. 

OBS.  1. — When  a  pronoun  has  two  or  more  plural  antecedents  connected 
by  or  or  nor,  it  is  of  course  plural,  and  agrees  with  them  severally.  To  tho 
foregoing  rule,  there  are  properly  no  exceptions. 

OBS.  2. — When  antecedents  of  different  persons,  numbers,  or  genders,  are 
connected  by  or  or  nor,  they  cannot  be  represented  by  a  pronoun  that  is  not 
applicable  to  each  of  them.  The  following  sentence  is  therefore  inaccurate : 
"  Either  tkou  or  I  am  greatly  mistaken  in  our  judgement  on  this  subject." — 
Murray's  'Key.  But  different  pronouns  may  be  so  connected  as  to  refer  to 
such  antecedents  taken  separately ;  as,  "  By  requiring  greater  labour  from 
such  slave  or  slaves,  than  he  or  she  or  they  are  able  to  perform." — Prince's 
Digest.  Or,  if  the  gender  only  be  different,  the  masculine  may  involve  the 
feminine  by  implication ;  as,  "  If  a  man  smite  the  eye  of  his  servant  or  the 
eye  of  his  maid  that  it  perish,  he  shall  let  him  go  free  for  his  eye's  sake."  - 
Exodus,  xxi.  26.  \ 

FALSE  SYNTAX  UNDER  RULE  VIII. 

Neither  wealth  nor  honour  can  secure  the  happiness  of  theii 
votaries. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  their  is  of  the  plural  number,  and 
does  not  correctly  represent  its  two  antecedents  wealth  and  honour,  which 
are  connected  by  nor,  and  taken  disjunctively.  But,  according  to  Rule  8th, 
"  When  a  pronoun  has  two  or  more  singular  antecedents  connected  by  or 
or  nor,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the  singular  number."  Therefore,  their 
should  be  its ;  thus.  Neither  wealth  nor  honour  can  secure  the  happiness  of 
Us  votaries.] 


148  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Neither  Sarah,  Ann,  nor  Jane,  has  performed  their  to.sk. 

One  or  tne  other  must  relinquish  their  claim. 

A  man  is  not  such  a  machine  as  a  clock  or  a  watch,  which  will 

move  only  as  they  are  moved, 
Rye  or  barley,  when  they  are  scorched,  may  supply  the  place 

of  cofTee. 
A  man  may  see  a  metaphor  or  an  allegory  in  a  picture,  as  well 

as  read  them  in  a  description. 
Despise  no  infirmity  of  mind  or  body,  nor  any  condition  of 

life,  for  they  may  be  thy  own  lot. 

RULE  IX.— YERBS. 

A  Verb  must  agree  with  its  subject,  or  nominative,  in  per- 
son and  number :  as,  "  I  know  ;  thou  knowst,  or  knowest ; 
he  knowSj  or  knoweth" — "The  hivd flies ;  the  birds jly" 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULE    IX. 

OBS.  1. — To  this  general  rule  for  the  verb,  there  are  properly  no  excep- 
tions. The  infinitive  mood,  having  no  relation  to  a  nominative,  is  of  course 
exempt  from  the  agreement ;  and  all  the  special  rules  which  follow,  virtually 
accord  with  this. 

OBS.  2. — Every  finite  verb  (that  is,  every  verb  not  in  the  infinitive  mood) 
must  have  some  noun,  pronoun,  or  phrase  equivalent,  known  as  the  subject 
of  the  being,  action,  or  passion;  and  with  this  subject  the  verb  must  agree 
in  person  and  number. 

OBS.  3. — Different  verbs  always  have  different  subjects,  expressed  or  un- 
derstood ;  except  when  two  or  more  verbs  are  connected  in  the  same  con- 
struction, or  when  the  same  verb  is  repeated  for  the  sake  of  emphasis. 

OBS.  4. — Verbs  in  the  imperative  mood,,  commonly  agree  with  the  pronoun 
thou,  ye,  or  you,  understood ;  as,  "  Do  [thou]  as  thou  list." — Shak.  "  Trust 
God  and  be  doing,  and  leave  the  rest  with  him." — Dr.  Sibs. 

OBS.  5. — The  place  of  a  verb  can  have  reference  only  to  that  of  the  subject 
with  which  it  arrees,  and  that  of  the  object  which  it  governs :  this  matter 
is  therefore  sufficiently  explained  in  the  observations  under  Rule  2d  and 
Rule  20th. 

NOTES  TO  RULE  IX. 

NOTE  I.— The  adjuncts  of  the  nominative  do  not  control  its 
agreement  with  the  verb  :  as,  "  Six  months'  interest  was  due." — 
"  The  propriety  of  these  rules  is  evident." — "  The  mill,  with  all 
its  appurtenances,  was  destroyed}'' 

NOTE  II. — The  infinitive  mood,  a  phrase,  or  a  sentence,  is 
sometimes  the  subject  to  a  verb :  a  subject  of  this  kind,  how- 
ever composed,  if  it  is  taken  as  one  whole,  requires  a  verb  in 
the  third  person  singular  ;  as,  "  To  lie  is  base." — "  To  see  the 
sun  is  pleasant." — "  That  you  have  violated  the  law,  is  evident." 
— "  For  what  purpose  they  embarked,  is  not  yet  known." — "  How 
far  the  change  would  contribute  to  his  welfare,  comes  to  be  con 
sidered." — Blair. 


SYNTAX. VERBS. 


149 


OBS.  1. — The  same  meaning  will  be  expressed,  if  the  pronoun  it  be  placed 
before  the  verb,  and  the  infinitive,  phrase,  or  sent*nr*»,  ?fVr  't  ;  n?,  "  Jt  \g 
base  to  lie." — "  It  is  evident  that  you.  have  violated  the  tain."  The  construc- 
tion of  the  following  sentences  is  rendered  defective  by  the  omission  of  the 
pronoun:  "  Why  do  ye  that  which  [it]  is  not  lawful  to  do  on  the  sabbath 
days  1" — Luke,  vi.  2.  "  The  show-bread  which  [it]  is  not  lawful  to  eat,  but 
for  the  priests  only." — Luke,  vi.  4. 

OBS.  2. — When  the  infinitive  mood  is  made  the  subject  of  a  finite 
verb,  it  is  used  to  express  some  action  or  state  in  the  abstract;  as,  "  To 
be  contents  his  natural  desire."  Pope.  Here  to  be  stands  for  simple 
existence.  In  connexion  with  the  infinitive,  a  concrete  quality  may  also 
be  taken  as  an  abstract ;  as,  "  To  be  good  is  to  be  happy."  Here  good  and 
happy  express  the  quality  of  goodness  and  the  state  of  happiness,  considered 
abstractly ;  and  therefore  these  adjectives  do  not  relate  to  any  particulai 
noun.  So  also  the  passive  infinitive,  or  a  perfect  participle  taken  in  a  pas- 
sive sense;  as.  "  To  be  satisfied  with  a  little  is  the  greatest  wisdom." — "  To 
appear  discouraged  is  the  way  to  become  so."  Here  the  satisfaction  and  the 
discouragement  are  considered  abstractly,  and  without  reference  to  any  par- 
ticular person. 

OBS.  3. — W-ien  the  action  or  state  is  to  be  limited  to  a  particular  person 
or  thing,  the  noun  or  pronoun  may  be  introduced  before  the  infinitive,  by 
the  pre position  for ;  as,  "  For  a  prince  to  be  reduced  by  villany  to  my  dis- 
tressful circumstances,  is  calamity  enough." — Tr.  Sallust. 

NOTE  111. — A  neuter  verb  between  two  nominatives  should 
be  made  to  agree  with  that  which  precedes  it ;  as,  "  Words 
are  wind  :"  except  when  the  terms  are  transposed,  and  the 
proper  subject  is  put  after  the  verb  by  question  or  hyperbaton; 
as,  "  His  pavilion  were  dark  waters  and  thick  clouds  of  the 
sky."— Bible.  "  Who  art  thou?r'—Ib.  "  Tta  wages  of  sin  is 
death."— Ib. 

NOTE  IV. — When  the  verb  has  different  forms,  that  form 
should  be  adopted,  which  is  l!he  most  consistent  with  present 
and  reputable  usage,  in  the  style  employed  :  thus,  to  say  famil- 
iarly, "  The  clock  hath  stricken" — "  Thou  laughedst  and  talk- 
edst,  when  thou  oughtest  to  have  been  silent," — "  He  readdh  and 
w-riteth,  but  he  doth  not  cipher," — would  be  no  better,  than  to 
use  don't,  won't,  can't,  shan't,  and  didri't,  in  preaching. 

NOTE  V. — Every  finite  verb  not  in  the  imperative  mood, 
should  have  a  separate  nominative  expressed ;  as,  "  /  came,  1 
saw,  I  conquered:"  except  when  the  verb  is  repeated  for  the 
sake  of  emphasis,  or  connected  to  an  other  in  the  same  con- 
struction ;  as, 

"  They  bud,  blow,  wither,  fall,  and  die.11— Waits. 

FALSE  SYNTAX  UNDER  RULE  IX. 

You  was  kindly  received. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  passive  verb  icas  received  is  of  the  singular  num- 
ber, and  does  not  agree  with  its  nominative  you,  which  is  of  the  second  per 
fton,  plural.  But,  according  to  Rule  9th,  "  A  verb  must  agree  with  its  sub- 
ject, or  nominative,  in  person  and  number."  Therefore,  icas  received  should 
be  were  received;  thus,  You  were  kindly  received.] 

13* 


150  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

We  was  disappointed. 

She  dare  no«,  oppose  it. 

His  pulse  are  too  quick. 

Circumstances  alters  cases. 

He  need  not  trouble  himself. 

Twenty-four  pence^is  two  shillings. 

On  one  side  was  beautiful  meadows. 

He  may  pursue  what  studies  he  please. 

What  have  become  of  our  cousins  ? 

There  was  more  impostors  than  one. 

What  says  his  friends  on  this  subject? 

Thou  knows  the  urgency  of  the  case. 

What  avails  good  sentiments  with  a  bad  life? 

Has  those  books  been  sent  to  the  school  ? 

There  is  many  occasions  for  the  exercise  of  patience. 

What  sounds  have  each  of  the  vowels  ? 

There  were  a  great  number  of  spectators. 

There  are  an  abundance  of  treatises  on  this  easy  science. 

While  ever  and  anon  there  falls 

Huge  heaps  of  hoary  moulder'd  walls. — Dyer. 

He  that  trust  in  the  Lord,  will  never  be  without  a  friend. 

Errors  that  originates  in  ignorance,  is  generally  excusable. 

Be  ye  not  as  the  horse,  or  as  the  mule,  which  have  no 
standing. 

Not  one  of  the  authors  who  mentions  this  incident,  is  entitled  to 
credit. 

The  man  and  woman  that  was  present,  being  strangers  to  him. 
wondered  at  his  conduct. 

There  necessarily  follows  from  thence  these  plain  and  unques- 
tionable consequences. 

O  thou,  for  ever  present  in  my  way, 
Who  all  my  motives  and  my  toils  survey. 

Under  Note  1. 

The  derivation  of  these  words  are  uncertain. 

Four  years'  interest  were  demanded. 

One  added  to  nineteen,  make  twenty. 

The  increase  of  orphans  render  the  addition  necessary. 

The  road  to  virtue  and  happiness,  are  open  to  all. 

The  ship,  with  all  her  crew,  were  lost. 

A  ruund  of  vain  and  foolish  pursuits,  delight  some  folks. 

Under  Note  2. 

To  obtain  the  praise  of  men,  were  their  only  object 
To  steal  and  then  deny  it,  are  a  double  sin. 


SYNTAX. VERBS.  161 

To  copy  and  claim  the  writings  of  others,  are  plagiarism. 

To  live  soberly,  righteously,  and  piously,  are  required  of  all 

men. 
That  it  is  our  duty  to  promote  peace  and  harmony  among  men, 

admit  of  no  dispute. 

Under  Note  3. 

The  reproofs  of  instruction  is  the  way  of  life. 
A  diphthong  are  two  vowels  joined  in  one  syllable. 
So  great  an  affliction  to  him  was  his  wicked  sons. 
What  is  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  that  island? 
He  churlishly  said  to  me,  "  Who  is  you  ?" 

Under  Note  4. 

1.  For  the  Familiar  Style. 

Was  it  thou  that  buildedst  that  house  ? 

That  boy  writeth  very  elegantly. 

Couldest  not  thou  write  without  blotting  thy  book  ? 

Thinkest  thou  not  it  will  rain  to-day  ? 

Doth  not  your  cousin  intend  to  visit  you  ? 

That  boy  hath  torn  my  book. 

Was  it  thou  that  spreadest  the  hay  ? 

W  as  it  James  or  thou  that  didst  let  him  in  ? 

He  dareth  not  say  a  word. 

Thou  stoodest  in  my  way  and  hinderedst  me. 

2.  For  the  Solemn  Style. 

The  Lord  has  prepar'd  his  throne  in  the  heavens  ;  and  his  king- 
dom rules  over  all. 

Thou  answer'd  them,  O  Lord  our  God :  thou  was  a  God  that 
forgave  them,  though  thou  took  vengeance  of  their  inventions, 

Then  thou  spoke  in  vision  to  thy  Holy  One,  and  said — 

So  then  it  is  not  of  him  that  wills,  nnr  of  him  that  runs,  but  of 
God  that  shows  mercy. 

Under  Note  5. 

New-York,  Fifthmonth  3d,  1823. 

Dear  friend,  Am  sorry  to  hear  of  thy  loss  ;  but  hope  it  may  be 
retrieved.  Should  be  happy  to  render  thee  any  assistance 
in  my  power.  Shall  call  to  see  thee  to-morrow  morning. 
Accept  assurances  of  my  regard.  A.  B. 

New- York,  May  3d,  P.  M.  1823. 

Dear  sir,  Have  just  received  the  kind  note  favoured  me  with 
this  morning ;  and  cannot  forbear  to  express  my  gratitude  to 
you.  On  further  information,  fii.d  have  not  lost  so  much  as 


152  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

at  first  supposed ;  and  believe  shall  still  be  able  to  meet  all 
my  engagements.  Should,  however,  be  happy  to  see  you. 
Accept,  dear  sir,  my  most  cordial  thanks.  C.  D. 

Will  martH  flames  forever  fire  thy  mind, 

And  neve: ,  never  be  to  Heaven  resign'd  ? — Pope. 

RULE  X.— YERBS. 

When  the  nominative  is  a  collective  noun  conveying 
the  idea  of  plurality,  the  Verb  must  agree  with  it  in  the 
plural  number  ;  as,  "  The  council  were  divided" 

OBSERVATION    ON    RULE    X. 

To  this  rule  there  are  no  exceptions.  Whenever  the  collective  noun  con- 
veys the  idea  of  plurality  without  the  form,  the  verb  is  to  be  parsed  by  Rule 
10th ;  but  if  the  nominative  conveys  the  idea  of  unity  or  takes  the  plural 
form,  the  verb  is  to  be  parsed  by  Rule  9th.  The  only  difficulty  is,  to  deter- 
mine in  what  sense  the  noun  should  be  taken.  In  modern  usage,  a  plural 
verb  is  commonly  adopted  wherever  it  is  admissible ;  as,  "  The  public  art 
informed" — "  The  plaintiff's  counsel  are  of  opinion" — "  The  committee  were 
instructed" 

NOTE  TO  RULE  X. 

A  collective  noun  conveying  the  idea  of  unity,  requires  a 
verb  in  the  third  person,  singular  ;  and  generally  admits  also 
the  regular  plural  construction:  as,  "  His  army  was  defeated" 
u  His  armies  were  defeated." 

FALSE  SYNTAX  UNDER  RULE  X. 

The  people  rejoices  in  that  which  should  cause  sorrow. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  verb  rejoices  is  of  the  singular  number,  and 
does  not  correctly  agree  with  its  nominative  people,  which  is  a  collective 
noun  conveying  the  idea  of  plurality.  But  according  to  Rule  10th, 
"  When  the  nominative  is  a  collective  noun  conveying  the  idea  of  plu- 
rality, the  verb  must  agree  with  it  in  the  plural  number."  Therefore, 
rejoices  should  be  rejoice;  thus,  The  people  rejoice  in  that  which  should 
cause  sorrow. 

The  nobility  was  assured  that  he  would  not  interpose. 

The  committee  has  attended  to  their  appointment. 

Mankind  was  not  united  by  the  bonds  of  civil  society. 

The  majority  was  disposed  to  adopt  the  measure. 

The  peasantry  goes  barefoot,  and  the  middle  sort  makes  use  of 

wooden  shoes. 

All  the  world  is  spectators  of  your  conduct. 
Blessed  is  the  people  that  know  the  joyful  sound. 

U?ider  Note  to  Rule  Wth. 

The  church  have  no  power  to  inflict  corporal  punishments. 
The  fleet  were  seen  sailing-  up  the  channel. 


SYNTAX. VERBS.  151 

The  meeting  have  established  several  salutary  regulations. 
The  regiment  consist  of  a  thousand  men. 
A  detachment  of  two  hundred  men  were  immediately  sent. 
Every  auditory  take  this  in  good  part. 
In  this  business,  the  house  of  commons  were  of  no  weight. 
Are  the  senate  considered  as  a  separate  body  ? 
There  are  a  flock  of  birds. 

No  society  are  chargeable  with  the  disapproved  conduct  of  par 
ticular  members. 

RULE  XI.— VERBS. 

When  a  Verb  has  two  or  more  nominatives  connected 
by  and)  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the  plural  number  :  as? 

"  Judges  and  senates  have  been  bought  for  gold, 
Esteem  and  love  were  never  to  be  sold." — Pope. 

EXCEPTION    FIRST. 

When  two  or  more  nominatives  connected  by  and.,  serve  merely  to  do* 
scribe  one  person  or  thing ;  they  are  in  apposition,  and  do  not  requfre  a  plu- 
ral verb :  as,  "  This  philosopher  and  poet  was  banished  from,  his  country." — 
"  Toll,  tribute,  and  custom,  was  paid  unto  them." — Ezra,  iv.  20. 

"  Whose  icy  current  and  compulsive  course 
Ne'er  feels  retiring  ebb,  but  keeps  due  on." — Sliakspeare. 

EXCEPTION    SECOND. 

m 

When  two  nominatives  connected  by  and,  are  emphatically  distinguished ; 
they  belong  to  different  propositions,  and  (if  singular)  do  not  require  a  plu- 
ral verb :  as,  "  Ambition,  and  not  the  safety  of  the  state,  was  concerned"— 
Goldsmith^ 

11  Ay,  and  no  too,  was  no  good  divinity." — Shak.^pcare. 
"  Love,  and  love  only,  is  the  loan  for  love." — Young. 

EXCEPTION    THIRD. 

When  two  or  more  nominatives  connected  by  and,  are  preceded  by  the 
adjective  each,  every,  or  no;  they  are  taken  separately,  and  do  not  re- 
quire a  plural  verb  :  as,  "  When  no  part  of  their  substance,  and  no  one  of 
their  properties,  is  the  same." — Butler.  "  Every  limb  and  feature  appears 
with  its  respective  grace." — Steele. 

EXCEPTION    FOURTH. 

When  the  verb  separates  its  nominatives,  it  agrees  with  that  which  pre- 
cedes it,  and  is  understood  to  the  rest ;  as, 


:< Forth  in  the  pleasing  spring, 

Thy  beauty  walks,  thy  tenderness,  and  love." — Thomson. 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULE    XI. 
OES.  1. — The  conjunction  is  sometimes  understood;  as, 
<l  Art,  empire,  earth  itself,  to  change  are  doomed." — Beattie. 


154  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

OBS.  2. — In  Greek  and  Latin,  the  verb  frequently  agrees  with  ihe 
nearest  nominative,  and  is  understood  to  the  rest ;  and  this  construction  is 
sometimes  improperly  imitated  in  English:  as,  Nuvi  <5tMENEI  irianq,  i\rrlst 
aydirri,  ra  rptu  ruvru. — Nuncvero  manct  fides,  spes,  charitas;  triahaec. — Now 
abideth  faith,  hope,  charity ;  these  three. — 1  Cor.  xiii.  13. 

OBS.  3. — When  the  nominatives  are  of  different  persons,  the  verb  agrees 
with  the  first  person  in  preference  to  the  second,  and  with  the  second  in 
preference  to  the  third  ;  for  thvu  and  I  (or  he,  tlwu,  and  /)  are  equivalent  to 
ice ;  and  thou  and  he  are  equivalent  to  you :  as,  "  Why  speakest  thou  any 
more  of  thy  matters  1  I  have  said,  thou  and  Ziba  divide  the  Jand."  —2  Sam. 
xix.  29.  i.  e.  "divide  ye  the  land." 

NOTES  TO  RULE  XI. 

NOTE  I. — When  two  subjects  or  antecedents  are  connected, 
one  of  which  is  taken  affirmatively,  and  the  other  negatively, 
they  belong  to  different  propositions  ;  and  the  verb  or  pronoun 
must  agree  with  the  affirmative  subject,  and  be  understood  to 
the  other  :  as,  "  Diligent  industry,  and  not  mean  savings,  pro- 
duces honourable  competence." — "  Not  a  loud  voice,  but  strong 
proofs  bring  conviction." 

NOTE  II. — When  two  subjects  or  antecedents  arc  connected 
by  as-well-as,  but,  or  save,  they  belong  to  different  propositions ; 
and,  (unless  one  of  them  is  preceded  by  the  adverb  not,)  the 
verb  and  pronoun  must  agree  with  the  former  and  be  under- 
stood to  the  latter :  as,  "  Veracity,  as  well  as  justice,  is  to  be  our 
rule  of  life." — Butler.  "  Nothing,  but  wailings,  was  heard.11 — 
"  None,  but  thou,  can  aid  us." — "  No  mortal  man,  save  1le,  &c. 
had  e'er  survived  to  say  he  saw." — W.  Scott. 

OBS.  1. — The  conjunction  as,  when  it  connects  nominatives  that  are  in 
apposition,  is  commonly  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  so  that  the 
verb  agrees  with  its  proper  nominative  following  the  explanatory  word; 
thus,  "  As  a  poet,  he  holds  a  high  rank." — Murray.  But  when  this  conjunc- 
tion denotes  a  comparison  between  two  nominatives,  there  must  be  two 
verbs  expressed  or  understood,  each  agreeing  with  its  own  subject;  as, 
"  Such  writers  as  he  [is]  liave  no  reputation  among  the  learned." 

OBS.  2. — Some  grammarians  say  that  but  and  save,  when  they  denote  ex- 
ception, should  govern  the  objective  case,  as  prepositions ;  but  this  is  not 
according  to  the  usage  of  the  best  authors.  The  objective  case  of  nouns 
being  like  the  nominative,  the  point  can  be  proved  only  by  the  pronouns? 
as,  "There  is  none  but  he  alone." — Perkins's  Theology,  1G08.  "  There  is 
none  other  but  he" — Mark,  xii.  32.  (This  text  is  good  authority  as  regards 
the  case,  though  it  is  incorrect  in  an  other  respect :  it  should  have  been, 
'  There  is  none  but  he"  or,  "  There  is  no  other  than  he")  "No  man  hath 
ascended  up  to  heaven,  but  he  that  came  down  from  heaven." — John,  iii.  13. 
"  Not  that  any  man  hath  seen  the  Father,  save  he  which  is  of  God." — John, 
vi.  46.  "  Few  can,  save  he  and  I." — Byron's  Werner.  "  There  is  none 
justified,  but  he  that  is  in  measure  sanctified." — Penington.  Save,  as  a  con- 
junctioft,  is  nearly  obsolete.  In  Rev.  ii.  17,  we  read,  "Which  no  man 
knoweth,  saving  he  that  receiveth  it." 

NOTE  III. — When  two  or  more  subjects  or  antecedents  are 


SYNTAX. VERBS.  1 55 

preceded  by  the  adjective  each,  every,  or  no}  they  are  taken 
separately,  and  require  a  verb  and  pronoun  in  the  singular 
number:  as, 

"  And  every  sense,  and  every  heart  is  joy." — Thomson. 
"  Each  beast,  each  insect,  happy  in  its  own." — Pope. 

NOTE  IV. — When  words  are  to  be  taken  conjointly  as  sub 
jects  or  antecedents,  the  conjunction  and  must  connect  them. 

OBS. — In  Latin,  cum  with  an  ablative,  sometimes  has  the  force  of  the  con- 
junction et  with  a  nominative  ;  as,  "  Dux  cum  aliquot  principibus  capiuntur." 
— Z/iry.  In  imitation  of  this  construction,  some  English  writers  have  sub- 
stituted with  for  and,  and  varied  the  verb  accordingly  ;  as,  "  A  long  course 
of  time,  icith  a  variety  of  accidents  and  circumstances,  are  requisite  to 
produce  these  revolutions." — Hume.  But,  as  the  preposition  makes  its  ob- 
ject only  an  adjunct  of  the  preceding  noun,  this  construction  cannot  be 
justified. 

NOTE  V. — Two  or  more  distinct  subject  phrases  connected  by 
and,  require  a  plural  verb  ;  as,  "  To  be  wise  in  &ur  own  eyes,  to  be 
wise  in  the  opinion  of  the  world,  and  to  be  wise  in  the  sight  of  our 
Creator,  are  three  things  so  very  different,  as  rarely  to  coincide." 
— Blair. 

FALSE  SYNTAX  UNDER  RULE  XI. 

Industry  and  frugality  leads  to  wealth. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  verb  leads  is  in  the  singular  number,  and  does 
not  correctly  agree  with  its  two  nominatives,  industry  and  frugality,  which 
are  connected  by  and,  and  taken  conjointly.  But,  according  to  Rule  llth, 
"  When  a  verb  has  two  or  more  nominatives  connected  by  and,  it  must  agree 
with  them  in  the  plural  number."  Therefore,  leads  should  be  lead ;  thus, 
Industry  and  frugality  lead  to  wealth.] 

Temperance  and  exercise  preserves  health. 

Time  and  tide  waits  for  no  man. 

My  love  and  affection  towards  thee  remains  unaltered. 

Wealth,  honour,  and  happiness,  forsakes  the  indolent 

My  flesh  and  my  heart  faileth. 

In  all  his  works,  there  is  sprightliness  and  vigour. 

Elizabeth's  meekness  and  humility  was  extraordinary. 

In  unity  consists  the  security  and  welfare  of  every  society. 

High  pleasures  and  luxurious  living  begets  satiety. 

Much  does  human  pride  and  folly  require  correction. 

Our  conversation  and  intercourse  with  the  world  is,  in  several 

respects,  an  education  for  vice. 
Occasional  release  from  toil,  and  indulgence  of  ease,  is  what 

nature  demands,  and  virtue  allows. 
VV  hat  generosity,  and  what  humanity,  was  then  displayed! 

What  thou  desir'st, 

And  what  thou  fearst,  alike  destroys  all -hope. 


156  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Under  Note  1. 

Wisdom,  arid  not  wealth,  procure  esteem. 

Prudence,  and  not  pomp,  are  the  basis  of  his  fame. 

Not  fear,  but  labour  have  overcome  him. 

The  decency,  and  not  the  abstinence,  make  the  difference. 

Not  her  beauty,  but  her  talents  attracts  attention. 

It  is  her  talents,  and  not  her  beauty,  that  attracts  attention. 

It  is  her  beauty,  and  not  her  talents,  that  attract  attention, 

Under  Note  2. 

His  constitution,  as  well  as  his  fortune,  require  care. 
Their  religion,  as  well  as  their  manners,  were  ridiculed. 
Every  one,  but  thou,  hadst  been  legally  discharged. 
The  buyer,  as  well  as  the  seller,  render  themselves  liable. 
All  songsters,  save  the  hooting  owl,  was  mute. 
None,  but  thou,  O  mighty  prince  !  canst  avert  the  blow. 
Nothing,  but  frivolous  amusements,  please  the  indolent. 
Caesar,  as  well  as  Cicero,  were  admired  for  their  eloquence. 

Under  Note  3. 

Each  day,  and  each  hour,  bring  their  portion  of  duty. 
Every  house,  and  even  every  cottage,  were  plundered. 
Every  thought,  every  word,  and  every  action,  will  be  brought 

into  judgement,  whether  they  be  good  or  evil. 
The  time  will  come,  when  no  oppressor,  no  unjust  man,  will 

be  able  to  screen  themselves  from  punishment. 

No  bandit  fierce,  no  tyrant  mad  with  pride, 
No  cavern'd  hermit,  rest  self-satisfied. 

Under  Note  4. 

In  this  affair,  perseverance  with  dexterity  were  requisite. 

Town  or  country  are  equally  agreeable  to  me. 

Sobriety  with  humility  lead  to  honour. 

The  king,  with    the   lords,  and  the  commons,   compose   the 

British  parliament. 

The  man  with  his  whole  family  are  dead. 
A  small  house  in  addition  to  a  tuiling  annuity,  are  still  granted 

him. 

Under  Note  5. 

To  profess,  and  to  possess,  is  very  different  things. 
To  do  justly,  to  love  mercy,  and  to  walk  humbly  with  God,  is 
duties  of  universal  obligation. 


SYNTAX. VERBS.  157 

To  be  round  or  square,  to  be  solid  or  fluid,  to  be  large  or  small, 
and  to  be  moved  swiftly  or  slowly,  is  all  equally  alien  from 
the  nature  of  thought. 

RULE  XIL— VERBS. 

When  a  Verb  has  two  or  more  singular  nominatives 
connected  by  or  or  nor,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the 
singular  number  :  as,  "  Fear  or  jealousy  affects  him." 

OBSERVATION    ON    RULE    XII. 

To  this  rule  there  are  properly  no  exceptions.  But  in  the  learned  lan- 
guages, a  plural  verb  is  often  employed  with  singular  nominatives  thus  con- 
nected; as, 

"  Tune  nee  mens  mihi,  nee  color 
Certa  sede  manent." — Horace. 

And  the  best  scholars  have  sometimes  improperly  imitated  this  construc- 
tion in  English ;  as, 

"  He  comes — nor  want  nor  cold  his  course  delay . 
Hide,  blushing  Glory !  hide  Pultowa's  day." — Dr.  Johnson. 

NOTES  TO  RULE  XII. 

NOTE  I. — When  a  verb  has  nominatives  of  different  persons 
or  numbers,  connected  by  or  or  nor,  it  must  agree  with  that 
which  is  placed  next  to  it,  and  be  understood  to  the  rest,  in  the 
person  and  number  required  ;  as.  "  Neither  he  nor  his  brothers 
were  there." — u  Neither  you  nor  I  am  concerned." — "  That 
neither  they  nor  ye  also  die." — Numb,  xviii.  3. 

OBS.  1. — When  the  latter  nominative  is  parenthetical,  the  verb  agrees 
with  the  former  only  ;  as,  "  One  example  (or  ten)  says  nothing  against  the 
universal  opinion." — Leigh  Hunt.  "And  we  (or  future  ages)  may  possibly 
Jtave  a  proof  of  it." — Bp.  Butler. 

OBS.  2. — When  the  alternative  is  merely  in  the  words,  not  in  the  thougld, 
the  terms  are  virtually  in  apposition,  and  the  principal  nominative  alone 
controls  t*  ^  verb  ;  but  there  is  always  a  harshness  in  this  mixture  of  differ- 
ent numbers:  as,  "  A  parathesis,  or  brackets,  consists  of  two  angular  strokes, 
or  hooks,  enclosing  one  or  more  words." — Whiting.  "To  show  us  that 
our  own  schemes,  or  prudence,  have  no  share  in  our  advancements." — Addi- 
son.  "  The  Mexican  figures,  or  picture-writing,  represent  things,  not  words ; 
ihey  exhibit  images  to  the  eye,  not  ideas  to  the  understanding." — Murray's 
Gr.  p.  243. 

NOTE  II. — But  when  the  nominatives  require  different  forms 
of  the  verb,  it  is  in  general  more  elegant  to  express  the  verb, 
or  its  auxiliary,  in  connexion  with  each  of  them  ;  as,  "  Either 
thou  art  to  blame,  or  I  am" — "  Neither  were  their  numbers, 
nor  was  their  destination  known." 

NOTE  IIL — The  speaker  should  generally  mention  himself 
last ;  as,  "  Thou  or  /  must  go." — "  He  then  addressed  his  dis- 
course to  my  father  and  me."  But  in  confessing  a  fault  he 

14 


158  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

may  assume  the   first  place ;  as,  "  /  and  Robert  did  it." — Jlf 
Edgeworth. 

NOTE  IV. — Two  or  more  distinct  subject  phrases  connected 
by  or  or  nor,  require  a  singular  verb ;  as,  "  That  a  drunkard 
should  be  poor :  or  that  a  fop  should  be  ignorant,  is  not  strange." 

FALSE  SYNTAX  UNDER  RULE  XII. 
Ignorance  or  negligence  have  caused  this  mistake. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  verb  have  caused  is  of  the  plural  number,  and 
does  not  correctly  agree  with  its  two  nominatives,  ignorance  and  negligence, 
which  are  connected  by  or,  and  taken  disjunctively.  But,  according  to 
Rule  12th,  "  When  a  verb  has  two  or  more  singular  nominatives  connected 
by  or  or  nor,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the  singular  number."  Therefore, 
have  caused  should  be  has  caused ;  thus,  Ignorance  or  negligence  has  caused 
this  mistake.] 

Neither  imprudence,  credulity,  nor  vanity,  have  ever  been  im- 
puted to  him. 

What  the  heart  or  the  imagination  dictate,  flows  readily. 

Neither  authority  nor  analogy  support  such  an  opinion. 

Either  ability  or  inclination  were  wanting. 

Redundant  grass  or  heath  afford  abundance  to  their  cattle. 

The  returns  of  kindness  are  sweet ;  and  there  are  neither  hon- 
our, nor  virtue,  nor  utility,  in  repelling  them. 

The  sense  or  drift  of  a  proposition,  often  depend  upon  a  single 
letter. 

Under  Note  1. 

Neither  he  nor  you  was  there. 
Either  the  boys  or  I  were  in  fault. 
Neither  he  nor  I  intends  to  be  present. 
Neither  the  captain  nor  the  sailors  was  saved. 
Whether  one  person  or  more  was  concerned  in  the  business, 
does  not  yet  appear. 

Under  Note  2. 

Are  they  or  I  expected  to  be  there  ? 

Neither  he,  nor  am  I,  capable  of  it. 

Either  he  has  been  imprudent,  or  his  associates  vindictive. 

Neither  were  their  riches,  nor  their  influence  great 

Under  Note  3. 

I  and  my  father  were  riding  out. 

The  premiums  were  given  to  me  and  George. 

I  and  Jane  are  invited. 

They  ought  to  invite  me  and  my  sister. 

We  dreamed  a  dream  in  one  night,  I  and  he. 


SYNTAX. VERBS.  159 

Under  Note  4. 

To  practise  tale-bearing,  or  even  to  countenance  it,  are  great 

injustice. 
To  reveal  secrets,  or  to  betray  one's  friends,  are  contemptible 

perfidy. 

RULE  XIIL— YERBS. 

When  Verbs  are  connected  by  a  conjunction,  they  must 
either  agree  in  mood,  tense,  and  form,  or  have  separate 
nominatives  expressed  :  as,  "  He  himself  held  the  plough, 
soived  the  grain,  mad  attended  the  reapers." — "She  was 
proud,  but  she  is  now  humble." 

EXCEPTION. 

Verbs  differing  in  mood,  tense,  or  form,  may  sometimes  agree  with  the 
same  nominative,  especially  if  the  simplest  verb  be  placed  first;  as, 

"  What  nothing  earthly  gives  or  can  destroy." — Pope. 
"  Some  are,  and  must  be,  greater  than  the  rest." — Id. 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULE    XIII. 

OBS.  1. — When  separate  nominatives  are  expressed,  distinct  sentences  are 
formed,  and  the  verbs  have  not  a  common  construction.  Those  examples 
which  require  a  repetition  of  the  nominative  might  be  corrected  equally  well 
by  Note  5th  to  Rule  9th. 

OBS.  2. — Those  parts  which  are  common  to  several  verbs,  are  generally 
expressed  to  the  first,  and  understood  to  the  rest:  as,  "Every  sincere  en- 


NOTES  TO  RULE  XIII. 

NOTS  I. — The  preterit  should  not  be  employed  to  forrr>  the 
compound  tenses,  nor  should  the  perfect  participle  be  used  for 
the  preterit.  Thus :  say,  "  To  have  gone" — not,  "  To  have 
went ;"  and,  "  I  did  it"— not,  "  I  done  it." 

NOTE  II. — Care  should  be  taken,  to  give  every  verb  its  ap- 
propriate form  and  signification.  Thus  :  say,  "  He  lay  by  the 
fire" — not,  «  He  laid  by  the  fire." — «  He  had  entered  into  the 
connexion" — not,  "He  was  entered  into  the*  connexion." — "  I 
would  rather  stay11 — not,  "  I  had  rather  stay." 

OBS. — Several  verbs  which  resemble  each  other  in  form  are  frequently 
confounded:  as,  tojtee,  tojfry ;  to /ay,  to  lie ;  to  sit,  to  set;  to  fall,  to  fell ;  to 
rend,  to  rent ;  to  ride,  to  rid ;  &c.  Some  others  are  often  misapplied  ;  as, 
learn  for  teach.  There  are  also  erroneous  forms  of  some  of  the  compound 
tenses :  as,  "  We  will  be  convinced"  for  "  We  shall  be  convinced ;" — "  Ir  1  had 
have  Been  him,"  for  "  If  I  had  seen  him."  All  such  errors  are  to  be  corrected 
by  the  foregoing  note. 


160  ENGLISH    UllAMMAR. 

FALSE  SYNTAX  UNDER  RULE  XIII. 

They  would  neither  go  in  themselves,  nor  suffered  others  to 
enter. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  two  verbs  would  go  and  suffered,  which  are  con- 
nected without  separate  nominatives,  do  not  agree  in  mood.  But  accord- 
ing to  Rule  I3tb,  "  When  verbs  are  connected  by  a  conjunction,  they  must 
cither  agree  in  i:iood,  tense,  and  form,  or  have  separate  nominatives  express- 
ed." The  sentence  is  best*  corrected  by  changing  suffered  to  would  suffer; 
(would  understood ;)  thus,  They  would  neither  go  in  themselves,  nor  suffer 
others  to  enter.]  ^ 

Doth  he  not  leave  the  ninety  and  nine,  and  goeth  into  the 
mountains,  and  seeketh  that  which  is  gone  astray  ? 

Did  he  not  tell  thee  his  fault,  and  entreated  tliee  to  forgive  him  ? 

If  he  understands  the  business,  and  attend  to  it,  wherein  is  he 
deficient? 

The  day  is  approaching,  and  hastens  upon  us,  in  which  we 
must  give  an  account  of  our  stewardship. 

If  thou  dost  not  turn  unto  the  Lord,  but  forget  him  who  re- 
membered thee  in  thy  distress,  great  will  be  thy  condemna- 
tion.— Barclay. 

There  are  a  few  who  have  kept  their  integrity  to  the  Lord, 
and  prefer  his  truth  to  all  other  enjoyments. 

This  report  was  current  yesterday,  and  agrees  with  what  we 
heard  befoje. 

Virtue  is  generally  praised,  and  would  be  generally  practised 
also,  if  men  were  wise. 

Under  Note  1. 

He  would  have  went  with  us,  if  we  had  invited  him. 
They  have  chose  the  part  of  honour  and  virtue. 
He  soon  begun  to  be  weary  of  having  nothing  to  do. 
Somebody  has  broke  my  slate. 
I  seen  him  when  he  done  it. 

Under  Note  2. 

He  was  entered  into  the  conspiracy. 
The  American  planters  grow  cotton  and  rice. 
The  report  is  predicated  on  truth. 
I  entered  the  room  and  set  down. 
Go  and  lay  down,  my  son. 

With  such  books,  it  will  always  be  difficult  to  learn  children  to 
read. 

*  Errors  under  this  rule  may  generally  be  corrected  in  three  ways  :  1.  By 
changing  the  first  verb,  to  agree  with  the  second — 2.  By  changing  the  second 
verb,  to  agree  with  the  first— -3.  By  inserting  the  nominative.  Tke  form  prt- 
ferred.  is  in  the  Key. 


SYNTAX. PARTICIPLES.  181 

RULE  XIV.— PARTICIPLES. 

Participles  relate  to  nouns  or  pronouns,  or  are  governed 
by  prepositions  :  as,  "  Elizabeth's  tutor,  at  one  time  paying 
her  a  visit,  found  her  employed  in  reading  Plato." — Hume. 

EXCEPTION    FIRST. 

A  participle  sometimes  relates  to  a  preceding  phrase  or  sentence,  of  which 
it  forms  no  part ;  as, 

"  But  ever  to  do  ill  our  sole  delight, 
As  being  the  contrary  to  his  high  will." — M'dton* 

EXCEPTION    SECOND. 

With  an  infinitive  denoting  being  or  action  in  the  abstract,  a  participle  is 
sometimes  also  taken  abstractly ;  (that  is,  without  reference  to  any  particu- 
lar noun,  pronoun,  or  other  subject;)  as,  "To  seem  compelled  is  disagree- 
able."— "  To  keep  always  praying-  aloud  is  plainly  impossible." 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULE    XIV. 

OBS.  1. — To  this  rule  there  are  properly  no  other  exceptions ;  for  we  can 
not  agree  with  Murray  tiiat  it  is  strictly  correct  to  make  participles  in  ing 
the  subjects  or  objects  of  verbs,  while  they  retain  the  government  and  ad- 
juncts of  participles  ;  as,  "  Not  attending  to  this  rule,  is  the  cause  of  a  very 
common  error." — Murray's  Key.  "  He  abhorred  being  in  debt." — Ibid. 
11  Cavilling  and  objecting  upon  any  subject,  is  much  easier  than  clearing  up 
difficulties." — Bp.  Butler.  This  mixed  and  erroneous  construction  of  the 
participle,  is  a  great  blemish  in  the  style  of  several  English  authors.  It  is  at 
oest  a  useless  anomaly,  which  it  is  always  easy  to  avoid ;  as,  "  Inattentionto 
this  rule  is  the  cause  of  a  very  common  error." — "  He  abhorred  debt." — "  To 
eavil  and  object  upon  any  subject  is  much  easier  than  to  clear  up  difficulties." 

OBS.  2. — The  wort^  to  which  the  participle  relates,  is  sometimes  under- 
stood ;  as,  "  Granting  this  to  be  true,  what  is  to  be  inferred  from  if?" — 
Murray.  That  is,  "  /  granting  this  to  be  true,  ask  what  is  to  be  inferred 
from  it  7" — "  The  very  chin  was,  [I]  modestly  speaking,  [say,]  as  long  as 
my  whole  face." — Addison.  Some  grammarians  have  erroneously  taught 
that  such  participles  are  put  absolute. 

OBS.  3. — Participles  are  almost  always  placed  after  the  words  on  which 
their  construction  depends,  but  sometimes  they  are  introduced  before  them; 
as, 

"  Tmmur'd  in  cypress  shades,  a  sorcerer  dwells." — Milton. 

NOTES  TO  RULE  XIV. 

NOTE  I. — A  stive  Participles  have  the  same  government  as 
the  verbs  from  which  they  are  derived  ;  the  preposition  of,  there- 
fore, should  nerer  be  used  after  the  participle,  when  the  verb 
does  not  require  it.  Thus,  in  phrases  like  the  following,  of  is 
improper  :  "  Keeping  of  one  day  in  seven" — "  By  preaching  of 
repentance" — "  They  left  beating  o/*Paul." 

OBS. — When  participles  are  compounded  with  something  that  does  not 
oelong  to  the  verb,  they  become  adjectives;  and,  as  such,  they  cannot 

14* 


162  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

govern  an  object  after  them.  The  following  sentence  is  therefore  inaccu- 
rate: "  When  Caius  did  any  thing  unbecoming  his  dignity." — Jones's  Church 
History.  Such  errors  are  to  be  corrected  by  Note  15th  to  Rule  4th,  or  by 
changing  the  particle ;  as,  "Unbecoming  to  his  dignity,"  or,  "Not  becom- 
ing his  dignity." 

NOTE  II. — When  a  transitive  participle  is  converted  into  a 
noun,  of  must  be  inserted  to  govern  the  object  following. 

OBS.  1. — An  imperfect  or  a  compound  participle,  preceded  by  an  arti- 
cle, an  adjective,  or  a  noun  or  pronoun  of  the  possessive  case,  becomes 
a  verbal  noun ;  and,  as  such,  it  cannot  govern  an  object  after  it.  A  word 
which  may  be  the  object  of  the  participle  in  its  proper  construction,  re- 
quires the  preposition  of,  to  connect  it  with  the  verbal  noun;  as,  1.  (The 
participle,)  "  Worshiping  idols,  the  Jews  sinned." — "  Thus  worshiping 
idols — In  worshiping  idols — or,  By  worshiping  idols,  they  sinned."  2.  (The 
verbal  noun,)  "  The  worshiping  of  idols — Such,  worshiping  of  idols — or, 
Their  worshiping  of  idols,  was  sinful." — "  In  the  worshiping  of  idols,  there  is 
sin." 

OBS.  .2. — When  the  use  of  the  preposition  produces  amniguity  or  harsh- 
ness, the  expression  must  be  varied.  Thus,  the  sentence,  "  He  mentions 
Neirton's  writing  of  a  commentary,"  is  both  ambiguous  and  awkward.  If 
the  preposition  be  omitted,  the  word  writing  will  have  a  double  construction, 
which  is  inadmissible.  Some  would  say,  "He  mentions  Newton  writing  a 
commentary."  This  is  still  worse;  because  it  makes  the  leading  word  in 

press- 


jdy 

tfu 

sentence  incorrect :  all  such  possessives  are  to  be  expunged  by  Note  5th  to 
Rule  19th. 

OBS.  3. — We  sometimes  find  a  participle  that  takes  the  same  case  after 
as  before  it,  converted  into  a  verbal  noun,  and  the  latter  word  retained  un- 
changed in  connexion  with  it ;  as,  "  I  have  some  recollection  of  his  father's 
being  a  judge." — "  To  prevent  its  bein<r  a  dry  detail  of  terms." — Duck. 
The  noun  after  the  verbal,  is  in  apposition  with  the  possessive  going  be- 
fore. Nouns  that  are  in  apposition  with  the  possessive  case,  do  not  admit 
the  possessive  sign.  But  the  above-mentioned  construction  is  anomalous, 
and  perhaps  it  would  be  better  to  avoid  it ;  thus :  "  I  have  some  recollection 
tliat  his  father  was  a  judge." — "  To  prevent  it  from  being  a  dry  detail  oi 
terms." 

OBS.  4. — The  verbal  noun  should  not  be  accompanied  by  any  adjuncts  of 
the  verb  or  participle,  unless  they  be  taken  into  composition ;  as,  "  The 
hypocrite's  hope  is  like  the  %iving-up  of  the  ghost."  The  following  phrase 
is  therefore  inaccurate  :  "  For  the  more  easily  reading  of  large  numbers." 
Yet  if  we  say,  "  For  reading  large  numbers  the  more  easily,"  the  construc- 
tion is  different,  and  not  inaccurate. 

NOTE  III. — A  participle  should  not  be  used  where  the  infini- 
tive mood,  the  verbal  noun,  a  common  substantive,  or  a  phrase 
equivalent,  will  better  express  the  meaning. 

OBS.  1.- -Participles  that  have  become  nouns,  may  be  used  as  such  with 
or  without  the  article-,  as,  spelling,  reading,  writing,  drawing.  But  we 
sometimes  find  those  which  retain  the  government  and  the  adjuncts  of 
j/articiples,  used  as  nouns  before  or  after  verbs ;  as,  "  Exciting  such  dis- 
turbances, is  unlawful."  —  "Rebellion  is  rising  against  government." 
This  moncrrel  construction  is  liable  to  ambiguity,  and  ought  to  be  avoided. 
The  infinitive  mood,  the  verbal  or  some  other  noun,  or  a  clause  intro- 


SYNTAX. PARTICIPLES.  163 

iuced  by  the  conjunction  that,  will  generally  express  the  idea  in  a  better 
manner;  as,  "  To  excite  such  disturbances, — Tiie  exciting  of  such  disturb- 
ances,—  IJie  excitation  of  such  disturbances, — or,  That  one  sfwuld  excite  such 
disturbances,  is  unlawful." 

OBS.  2. — After  verbs  signifying  to  persevere  or  to  desist,  the  participle  in 
ing,  relating  to  the  nominative,  may  be  used  ki  stead  of  the  infinitive  con- 
nected to  the  verb ;  as,  "  So  when  they  continued  asking  him." — John,  viii. 
7.  Here  continued  is  intransitive,  and  asking  relates  to  ttiey.  Greek,  '£2$  61 
CTrtfjicvov  epuTMVTcs  avrov.  Latin,  "  Cum  ergo  perseverarent  interrogantea 
cum."  But  in  sentences  like  the  following,  the  participle  seems  to  be  im- 
properly made  the  object  of  the  verb :  "  I  intend  doing  it." — "  I  rememher  meet- 
ing him." — Better,  "  1  intend  to  do  it."—"  I  remember  to  have  met  aim." — 
Verbs  do  not  govern  participles. 

OB-*.  3. — After  verbs  of  beginning,  omitting,  and  avoiding,  some  writers 
employ  the  participle  in  English,  though  the  analogy  of  general  grammar 
evidently  requires  in  such  cases  the  infinitive  or  a  noun ;  as,  "  It  is  now 
above  three  years  since  he  began  printing." — Dr.  Adam's  Pref.  to  Rom. 
Antiquities.  "  He  omits  giving  an  account  of  them." — Tooke's  Div.  of  Par- 
ley, vol.  1.  p.  251.  "  He  studied  to  avoid  expressing  himself  too  severely." 
— Murray's  Gram.  Svo.  vol.  1.  p.  194.  If  these  examples  are  good  English^ 
(for  the  point  is  questionable,)  the  verbs  are  all  intransitive,  and  the  partici- 
ples relate  to  the  nominatives  going  before,  as  in  the  text  quoted  in  the  pre- 
ceding observation.  But  Murray,  not  understanding  this  construction,  or 
not  observing  what  verbs  admit  of  it,  has  very  unskilfully  laid  it  down  as  a 
rule,  that,  "  The  participle  with  its  adjuncts,  may  be  considered  as  a  sub- 
stantive phrase  in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  the  preposition  or  verb ;" 


ciples  are  verbs.  The  term  "  substantive  phr( 
merely  to  designate  this  anomalous  construction.  Copying  Lowth  again, 
he  defines  a  phrase  to  be  "two  or  more  words  rightly  put  together  ;"Jand 
whatsoever  words  are  rightly  nut  together,  may  be  regularly  parsed. 
But  how  can  one  indivisible  word  be  made  two  dilTerent  parts  of  speech 
at  once?  And  is  not  this  the  situation  of  every  transitive  participle  that 
is  made  either  the  subject  or  the  object  of  a  verb  1  Adjuncts  never  alter 
either  the  nature  or  the  construction  of  the  words  on  which  they  de- 
pend ;  and  participial  nouns  always  differ  from  participles  in  both.  The 
former  express  actions  as  thiiigs ;  the  latter  attribute  them  to  tlieir  agents  or 
recipients. 

NOTE  IV. — In  the  use  of  participles  and  of  verbal  nouns,  the 
leading  word  in  sense,  should  always  be  made  the  leading  ,or 
governing  word  in  the  construction. 


in  construction.  The  following  sentences  exhibit  a  disregard  to  this  princi- 
ple, and  are  both  inaccurate:  "  He  felt  his  strength 's declining."— "  He  was 
sensible  of  his  strength  declining."  In  the  former  sentence  the  noun  strength 
should  be  in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  felt ;  and  in  the  latter,  in  the 
possessive,  governed  by  declining. 

NOTE  V. — Participles,  in  general,  however  construed,  should 


164  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

have  a  clear  reference  to  the  proper  subject  of  the  being1,  action, 
or  passion.  The  following  sentence  is  therefore  faulty  :  "  By 
giving  way  to  sin,  trouble  is  encountered."  This  suggests  that 
trouble  gives  way  to  sin.  It  should  be,  "  By  giving  way  to  sin, 
we  encounter  trouble." 

NOTE  VI. — The  preterit  of  irregular  verbs  should  not  be 
used  for  the  perfect  participle :  as,  u  A  certificate  wrote  on 
parchment" — for,  "A  certificate  written  on  parchment."  This 
error  should  be  carefully  avoided. 

NOTE  VII. — Perfect  participles  being  variously  formed,  care 
should  be  taken  to  express  them  agreeably  to  the  best  usage  : 
thus,  learnt,  snatch^  checkt,  snapt,  mixt,  past,  are  erroneously 
written  for  learned,  snatched,  checked,  snapped,  mixed,  passed; 
and  holden,  foughten,  proven,  are  now  superseded  by  held,  fought, 
proved, 

FALSE  SYNTAX  UNDER  RULE  XIV. 

Examples  under  Note  1. 

[n  forming  of  his  sentences,  he  was  very  exact. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  preposition  of  is  used  after  the  participle  form- 
ing, whose  verb  does  not  require  it.  But,  according  to  Note  1st  under  Rule 
14th,  "  Participles  have  the  same  government  as  the  verbs  from  which  they 
are  derived  ;  the  preposition  o/",  therefore,  should  not  be  used  after  the  par- 
ticiple when  the  verb  does  not  require  it."  Therefore,  of  should  be  omitted} 
thus,  In  forming  his  sentences,  he  was  very  exact.] 

By  observing  of  truth,  you  will  command  respect. 

I  could  not,  for  my  heart,  forbear  pitying  of  him. 

I  heard  them  discussing  of  this  subject. 

By  consulting  of  the  best  authors,  he  became  learned. 

Here  are  rules,  by  observing  of  which,  you  may  avoid  error. 

Under  Note  2. 

Their  consent  was  necessary  for  the  raising  any  supplies. 
Thus  the  saving  a  great  nation  devolved  on  a  husbandman. 
It  is  an  overvaluing  ourselves,  to  decide  upon  every  thing. 
The  teacher  does  riot  allow  any  calling  ill  names. 
That  burning  the  capitol  was  a  wanton  outrage. 
May  nothing  hinder  our  receiving  so  great  a  good. 
My  admitting  the  fact  will  not  affect  the  argument. 
Cain's  killing  his  brother,  originated  in  envy. 

Under  Note  3. 

Cresar  carried  off  the  treasures,  which  his  opponent  had  neg- 
lected taking  with  him. — Goldsmith. 
It  is  dangerous  playing  with  edge  tools. 
[  intend  returning  in  a  few  days. 


SYNTAX. ADVERBS.  166 

Suffering  needlessly  is  never  a  duty. 
Nor  is  it  wise  complaining. — Cowper. 
I  well  remember  telling  you  so. 
Doing  good  is  a  Christian's  vocation. — H.  More. 
Piety  is  constantly  endeavouring  to  live  to  Goch    It  is  earnestly 
desiring  to  do  his  will,  and  not  our  own. — Id. 

Under  Note  4. 

There  is  no  harm  in  women  knowing  about  these  things. 
They  did  not  give  notice  of  the  pupil  leaving. 
The  sun's  darting  his  beams  through  my  window,  awoke  me. 
The  maturity  of  the  sago  tree  is  known  by  the  leaves  being 
covered  with  a  delicate  white  powder. 

Under  Note  5. 

Sailing  up  the  river,  the  whole  town  may  be  seen. 

Being  conscious  of  guilt,  death  becomes  terrible. 

By  yielding  to  temptation,  our  peace  is  sacrificed. 

In  loving  our  enemies,  no  man's  blood  is  shed. 

By  teaching  the  young,  they  are  prepared  for  usefulness. 

Under  Note  6. 

A  nail  well  drove  will  support  a  great  weight. 
See  here  a  hundred  sentences  stole  from  my  work. 
I  found  the  water  entirely  froze,  and  the  pitcher  broke. 
Being  forsook  by  my  friends,  I  had  no  other  resource. 

Under  Note  7. 

Fill  by  barbarian  deluges  o'erflown. 

Like  the  lustre  of  diamonds  sat  in  gold. 

A  beam  ethereal,  sullied  and  absorpt. 

With  powerless  wings  around  them  wrapt. 

Error  learnt  from  preaching,  is  held  as  sacred  truth. 

RULE  XV.— ADVERBS. 

Adverbs  relate  to  verbs,  participles,  adjectives,  or  other 
adverbs :  as,  "  Any  passion  that  habitually  discomposes 
our  temper,  or  unfits  us  for  properly  discharging  the  du- 
ties of  life,  has  most  certainly  gained  a  very  dangerous 
ascendency.';---jBZai'r. 

EXCEPTION   FIRST, 

The  adverbs  yes  and  yea,  expressing  a  simple  affirmation,  and  the  adverba 
no  and  nay,  expressing  a  simple  negation,  are  alwjxys  independent.  Thoy 
generally  answer  a  question,  and  are  equivalent  to  a  wnole  sentence.  Is  it 
clear,  that  they  ought  to  be  called  adverbs'?  No. 


166  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


EXCEPTION    SECOND. 

The  word  amen,  which  is  commonly  called  an  adverb,  is  often  used  inde* 
pendently  at  the  beginning  or  end  of  a  declaration  or  prayer ;  and  is  itself  a 
prayer,  meaning,  so  let  it  be. 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULE    XV. 

OBS.  1. — On  this  rule  Dr.  Adam  remarks  :  "  Adverbs  sometimes  likewise 
qualify  substantives;"  and  gives  Latin  examples  of  the  following  im- 
port' "  Homer  plainly  an  orator" — "  Truly  Metellus" — "  To-morrow  morn- 
ing"— "  Yesterday  morning."  But  this  doctrine  is  not  well  proved  by 
such  imperfect  phrases,  nor  can  it  ever  be  consistently  admitted ;  because 
it  destroys  the  characteristic  difference  between  an  adjective  and  an  ad- 
verb. 

OBS.  2. — Whenever  any  of  those  words  which  are  commonly  used  ad- 
verbially, are  made  to  relate  directly  to  nouns  or  pronouns,  they  must  be 
reckoned  adjectives,  and  parsed  by  Rule  4th;  as,  "The  above*  verbs." — Dr. 
Adam.  "God  only" — Bible.  "He  alone." — Id.  "  A  far  country." — Id. 
"  No  wine — No  new  thing — No  greater  joy." — Id.  "  Nothing  else." — Blair. 
"  To-morrow  noon." — Scott.  "  This  beneath  world." — S/iak.  "  Calamity 
enough." — TV.  Sallust.  "  My  hither  way" 

OBS.  3. — When  words  of  an  adverbial  character  are  used  after  the  manner 
of  nouns,  they  must  be  parsed  as  nouns  and  not  as  adverbs  :  as,  "  The  Son 
of  God — wras  not  yea  and  nay,  but  in  him  was  yea." — Bible.  "  For  a 
great  while  to  come." — Id.  "  On  this  perhaps,  this  pcradventure  infamous 
for  lies."—  Young.  "  From  the  extremest  upward  of  thine  head." — Shak. 
"  Prate  of  my  whereabout" — Id.  "  An  eternal  now  does  always  last." — 
r*mcley.  "  Discourse  requires  an  animated  no." — Cowper. 

OBS.  4. — Adverbs  sometimes  relate  to  verbs  understood  ;  as,  "  The  former 
has  written  correctly  ;  but  the  latter,  elegantly."  "And,  [/  say]  truly,  if  they 
had  been  mindful  of  that  country  from  whence  they  came  out,  they  might 
have  had  opportunity  to  have  returned." — Heb.  xi.  15. 

OBS.  5. — To  abbreviate  expressions,  and  give  them  vivacity,  verbs  of  self- 
motion  (as  go,  come,  rise,  get,  &c.)  are  sometimes  suppressed,  being  suggest- 
ed to  the  mind  by  an  emphatic  adverb  ;  as,  m 

"  I'll  hence  to  London  on  a  serious  matter." — SJiakspeare. 

"  I'll  in.     I'll  in.     Follow  your  friend's  counsel.     I'll  in." — Id. 

"  Away  old  man  ;  give  me  thy  hand  ;  away" — Id. 

"  Would  you  youth  and  beauty  stay, 

"  Love  hath  wings,  and  will  away." — Waller. 

"  Up,  up,  Glentarkin  !  rouse  thee,  ho !" — W.  Scott. 

OBS.  6. — Most  conjunctive  adverbs  relate  to  two  verbs  at  the  same  time, 
and  thus  connect  the  two  clauses;  as,  "  And  the  rest  will  I  set  in  order  when 
I  come." — 1  Cor.  xi.  34.  Here  when  is  an  adverb  of  time,  relating  to  the 
two  verbs,  will  set  and  come;  the  meaning  being,  "And  the  rest  will  I  set  in 
order  at  the  time  at  which  I  come." 

NOTES  TO  RULE  XV. 

NOTE  I. — Adverbs  must  be  placed  in  that  position  which 
will  render  the  sentence  the  most  perspicuous  and  agreeable 

*  Murray  and  hi*  copyists  strongly  condemn  this  use  of  above,  and  we  do  not 
contend  for  it;  but,  both  he  and  they,  (as  well  as  others,)  have  repeatedly  em- 
ployed the  word  in  this  manner:  as,  "  The  above  construction." — Murray*  Gr. 
8vo.  p.  149.  "  Trie  above  instances."— p.  202.  "  The  above  rule."— p.  270, 
"  In  such  instances  as  the  above."— p.  24.  "  The  same  as  the  above." — p.  66 


SYNTAX. ADVERBS.  167 

OBS. — For  the  placing  of  adverbs,  no  definite  general  rule  can  be 
given.  Those  which  relate  to  adjectives,  immediately  precede  them;  and 
those  which  belong  to  compound  verbs,  are  commonly  placed  after  the  first 
auxiliary. 

NOTE  II. — Adverbs  should  not  be  used  as  adjectives ;  nor 
should  they  bo  employed,  when  quality  is  to  be  expressed,  and 
not  manner :  as,  "  The  then  ministry" — "  The  soonest  time" — 
u  Thine  often  infirmities" — "  It  seems  strangely"  All  these  are 
wrong. 

NOTE  III. — With  a  verb  of  motion,  most  grammarians  pre- 
fer hither,  thither,  and  whither,  to  here,  there,  and  where,  which 
are  in  common  use  ;  as,  "  Come  hither  Charles" — not,  "  Come 
here." 

NOTE  IV. — To  the  adverbs  hence,  thence,  and  whence,  the 
preposition  from  is  frequently  (though  not  with  strict  propriety) 
prefixed. 

NOTE  V. — The  adverb  how  should  not  be  used  before  the 
conjunction  that,  nor  in  stead  of  it ;  as,  "  He  said  how  he  would 
go."  Expunge  how.  This  is  a  vulgar  error. 

NOTE  VI. — The  adverb  no  should  not  be  used  with  reference 
to  a  verb  or  a  participle.  Such  expressions  as,  "  Tell  me  wheth- 
er you  will  go  or  no"  are  therefore  improper  :  no  should  be  not; 
for  "go1'  is  understood  after  it. 

OBS. — JVois  sometimes  an  adverb  of  degree ;  and  as  such  it  has  this  pecu- 
liarity, that  it  can  relate  only  to  comparatives :  as,  "  No  more" — "  No  better" 
— "No  greater" — "  No  sooner."  When  this  word  is  prefixed  to  a  noun,  it 
is  clearly  an  adjective,  corresponding  to  the  Latin  nullus ;  as,  "Afo  clouds, 
no  vapours  intervene." — Dyer. 

NOTE  VII. — A  negation,  in  English,  admits  but  one  nega- 
tive word  :  as,  "  I  could  not  wait  any  longer" — not,  "no  longer." 
Double  negatives  are  vulgar. 

OBS.  1. — The  repetition  of  a  negative  word  or  clause,  strengthens  the  ne 
gation,  as,  "No,  no,  no."  But  two  negatives  in  the  same  clause,  destroy 
the  negation,  and  render  the  meaning  affirmative ;  as,  "  Nor  did  they  not 
perceive  their  evil  plight." — Milton.  That  is,  they  did  perceive  it. 

OBS.  -2. — Ever  and  never  are  directly  opposite  in  sense,  and  yet  they  are 
frequently  confounded  and  misapplied  even  by  respectable  writers ;  as, 
"  Seldom,  or  never,  can  we  expect,"  &c. — Ulair's  Lectures,  p.  305.  "  Sel- 
dom, or  ever,  did  any  one  rise,"  &c. — Ibid.  p.  272.  Here  never  is  right-,  and 
ever  is  wrong.  But  as  the  negative  adverb  applies  only  to  time,  ever  is  pref- 
erable to  never,  in  sentences  like  the  following  :  "  Now  let  man  reflect  but 
never  so  little  on  himself." — Burlamaqui,  p.  21).  "  Which  will  not  hearken 
to  the  voice  of  charmers,  charming  never  so  wisely." — Ps.  Iviii.  5.  For  the 
phrase  ever  so,  (which  ought  perhaps  to  be  written  as  one  word,)  is  a  very 
common  expression,  denoting  degree,  however  great  or  small ;  as,  "  everso 
little" — "  everso  wisely."  And  it  seems  to  be  this,  and  not  time,  that  is  in- 
tended in  the  last  two  examples. 

OBS.  3. — By  the  customary  (but  faulty)  omission  of  the  negative  before 
but,  that  conjunction  has  acquired  the  adverbial  sense  of  only;  and  it 
may,  when  used  with  that  signification,  be  called  an  adverb.  Thus,  the 
text,  "  He  hath  not  grieved  me  but  in  part,"  [2  Cor.  ii.  5.]  might  drop 


168  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

the  negative,  and  still  convey  the  same  meaning :  "  He  hath  grieved  me  but 
in  part." 

"  Reason  itself,  but  gives  it  edge  and  power." — Pope. 

"  Born  but  to  die,  and  reasoning  but  to  err." — Id. 

FALSE  SYNTAX  UNDER  RULE  XV. 

Examples  under  Note  1. 
We  were  received  kindly. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  adverb  kindly  is  not  in  the  most  suitable  place, 
But,  according  to  note  1st  under  Rule  15th,  "  Adverbs  must  be  placed  in 
that  position  which  will  render  the  sentence  the  most  perspicuous  and  agree- 
able." The  sentence  will  be  improved  by  placing  kindly  before  received; 
thus,  We  were  kindly  received.] 

The  work  will  be  never  completed. 

We  always  should  prefer  our  duty  to  our  pleasure. 

It  is  impossible  continually  to  be  at  work. 

He  impertinently  behaved  to  his  master. 

The  heavenly  bodies  are  in  motion  perpetually. 

Not  only  he  found  her  busy,  but  pleased  and  happy  even. 

Under  Note  2. 

Give  him  a  soon  and  decisive  answer. 
When  a  substantive  is  put  absolutely. 
Such  expressions  sound  harshly. 
Such  events  are  of  seldom  occurrence. 
Velvet  feels  very  smoothly. 

Under  Note  3. 

Bring  him  here  to  me. 

I  shall  go  there  again  in  a  few  days. 

Where  are  they  all  riding  in  so  great  haste  ? 

Under  Note  4. 

From  hence  it  appears  that  the  statement  is  incorrect 
From  thence  arose  the  misunderstanding. 
Do  you  know  from  whence  it  proceeds  ? 

Under  Note  5. 

You  see  how  that  not  many  are  required. 

I  knew  how  that  they  had  heard  of  his  misfortunes. 

He  remarked,  how  time  was  valuable. 

Under  Note  6. 

Know  now,  whether  this  be  thy  son's  coat  or  no. 
Whether  he  is  in  fault  or  no,  I  cannot  tell. 
I  will  ascertain  whether  it  is  so  or  no. 


SYNTAX. — CONJUNCTIONS.  169 

Under  Note  7. 

I  will  not  by  no  means  entertain  a  spy. 

Nobody  never  invented  nor  discovered  nothing,  in  no  way  to 

be  compared  with  this. 

Be  honest,  nor  take  no  shape  nor  semblance  of  disguise. 
[  did  not  like  neither  his  temper  nor  his  principles. 
Nothing  never  can  justify  ingratitude. 

RULE  XVI.— CONJUNCTIONS. 

Conjunctions  connect  either  words  or  sentences :  as, 
"  Let  there  be  no  strife,  I  pray  thee,  between  me  and  thee, 
and  between  my  herdmen  and  thy  herdmen  ;  for  we  are 
brethren." — Gen.  xiii.  8. 

EXCEPTION   FIRST. 

The  conjunction  that  sometimes  serves  merely  to  introduce  a  sentence 
which  is  made  the  subject  of  a  verb ;  as,  "  Tliat  mind  is  not  matter,  is  cer- 
tain." 

EXCEPTION    SECOND. 

When  two  corresponding  conjunctions  occur,  the  former  should  be 
parsed  as  referring  to  the  latter,  which  is  more  properly  the  connecting 
word;  as,  "  Neitfor  sun  nor  stars  in  many  days  appeared." — Acts 
xxvii.  20. 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULE    XVI. 

OBS.  1. — Conjunctions  that  connect  particular  words,  generally  join  sim 
liar  parts  of  speech  in  a  common  dependence  on  some  other  term.  Those 
which  connect  sentences  or  clauses,  commonly  unite  one  to  an  other,  either 
as  an  additional  affirmation,  or  as  a  condition,  a  cause,  or  an  end.  They  are 
placed  between  the  terms  which  they  connect,  except  there  is  a  transposition, 
and  then  they  stand  before  the  dependent  term. 

OBS.  2. — Two  or  three  conjunctions  sometimes  come  together;  as, 

"  What  rests,  but  that  the  mortal  sentence  pass  1" — Milton. 

OBS.  3. — Conjunctions  should  not  be  unnecessarily  accumulated ;  as, 
"  But  AND  if  that  evil  servant  say  in  his  heart." — Matt.  xxiv.  48.  Greek, 
'Eu«/  6i  ciirr)  o  KIIKOS  <5<>rX9f  t.«elv  •?,  &c.  Here  is  no  and. 

OBS.  4. — The  conjunction  as  often  unites  words  that  are  in  apposition  ;  as, 
"He  offered  himself  as  a  journeyman"  [See  Obs.  5,  Rule  xx.l  So,  like- 
wise, when  an  intransitive  verb  takes  the  same  case  after  as  before  it,  by 
Rule  xxi. ;  as,  "  Johnson  soon  after  engaged  as  usher  in  a  school." — Murray. 

II  He  was  employed  as  usher."    This  also  is  a  virtual  apposition.     If  after  the 
verb  "  engaged     we  supply  himself,  usher  becomes  objective,  and  is  in  appo- 
sition with  the  pronoun. 

OBS.  5. — As  frequently  has  the  force  of  a  relative  pronoun  ;  as,  "Avoid 
§uch  as  are  vicious."  "  But  to  as  many  as  received  him  "  &c.  "  He 
then  read  the  conditions  as  follow."  Here  as  represents  a  noun,  and  is 
the  subject  of  a  verb.  [See  Tooke's  Diversions  of  Purley.]  But  when  a 
clause,  or  sentence,  is  the  antecedent,  it  is  better  to  consider  as  a  conjunc- 
tion, and  tc  fupply  tht  pronoun  it:  as,  "  He  is  angry,  as  [it]  appears  by  thin 
letter."  .  K 

15 


170  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

OBS.  6. — The  conjunction  that  is  frequently  understood;  as, 
"  Thou  warnst  me  [that]  I  have  done  amiss." — Scott. 

OBS.  7. — After  than  or  as  expressing  a  comparison,  there  is  usually  an  el- 
lipsis  of  some  word  or  words.  The  construction  of  the  words  employed 
may  be  known  by  supplying  the  ellipsis;  as,  "  She  is  younger  than  I"  [am.] 
— "  He  does  nothing  who  endeavours  to  do  more  than  [icliat]  is  allowed  to 
humanity." — Johnsoti,  "  My  punishment  is  greater  than  [w/iat]  I  can  bear." 
— JBible. 

NOTES  TO  RULE  XVI. 

NOTE  I. — When  two  terms  connected  refer  jointly  to  a  third, 
they  must  be  adapted  to  it  and  to  each  other,  both  in  sense  and 
in  form.  Thus  :  in  stead  of,  "  It  always  has,  and  always  will 
be  laudable,"  say,  "  It  always  has  been,  and  it  always  will  be 
laudable." 

NOTE  II. — The  disjunctive  conjunctions  lest  and  but,  should 
not  be  employed  where  the  copulative  that,  would  be  more 
proper :  as,  "  I  feared  that  I  should  be  deserted ;"  not,  "  lest  I 
should  be  deserted." 

NOTE  III. — After  else,  other,  rather,  and  all  comparatives,  the 
latter  term  of  comparison  should  be  introduced  by  the  conjunc- 
tion than :  as,  "  Can  there  be  any  other  than  this  ?" — Harris. 
"  Is  not  the  life  more  than  meat  ?'1 — Bible. 

NOTE  IV. — The  words  in  each  of  the  following  pairs,  are 
the  proper  correspondents  to  each  other  ;  and  care  should  be 
taken,  to  give  them  their  right  place  in  the  sentence : 

1.  Though — yet;  as,  "  Though  he  were  dead,  yet  shall  he 
live." — John,  xi.  25. 

2.  Whether — or ;  as,  "  Whether  there  be  few  or  many." 

3.  Either — or ;  as,  "  He  was  either  ashamed  or  afraid." 

4.  Neither — nor ;  as,  "  John  the  Baptist  came  neither  eating 
bread  nor  drinking  wine." — Luke,  vii.  33. 

5.  Both — and ;  as,  "  I  am  debtor  both  to  the  Greeks  and  to 
the  Barbarians." — Rom.  i.  14. 

6.  Such — as  ;  as,  "  An  assembly  such  as  earth  saw  never." — 
Cowper. 

7.  Such — that ;  with  a  finite  verb  following,  to  express  a  con- 
sequence :  as,  "  My  health  is  such  that  I  cannot  go." 

8.  As — as;  with  an  adjective  or  an  adverb,  to  express  equal- 
ity: as,  "  The  peasant  is  as  gay  as  he." — Cowper. 

9.  As — so;  with  two  verbs,  to  express  equality  or  proportion. 
as,  "  As  two  are  to  four,  so  are  six  to  twelve." 

10.  So — as;  with  an  adjective  or  an  adverb,  to  limit  the  de- 
gree by  comparison :  as,  "  How  can  you  descend  to  a  thing  so 
base  as  falsehood  ?" 


SYNTAX. CONJUNCTIONS.  171 

11.  So — as;  with  a  negative  preceding,  to  deny  equality: 
as,  "  No  lamb  was  e'er  so  mild  as  he." — Langhorne. 

12.  So — as ;  with  an  infinitive  following,  to  express  a  con- 
sequence :  as,  "  These  difficulties  were  so  great  as  to  discour- 
age him." 

13.  So — that;   with  a  finite  verb  following,  to  express  a 
consequence  :  as,  "  He  was  so  much  injured,  that  he  could  not 
walk." 

FALSE  SYNTAX  UNDER  RULE  XVI. 

Examples  wider  Note  1. 

The  first  proposal  was  essentially  different  and  inferior  to  the 
second. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  preposition  to,  is  used  with  joint  reference  to 
the  two  adjectives  different  and  inferior,  which  require  different  preposi- 
tions. But,  according  to  Note  1st  under  Rule  16th,  "When  two  terms 
connected  refer  jointly  to  a  third,  they  must  be  adapted  to  it  and  to  each 
other,  both  in  sense  and  in  form."  The  sentence  may  be  corrected  thus; 
The  first  proposal  was  essentially  different  from  the  second,  and  inferior 
to  it.] 

He  has  made  alterations  and  additions  to  the  work. 
He  is  more  bold,  but  not  so  wise,  as  his  companion. 
Sincerity  is  as  valuable,  and  even  more  so,  than  knowledge. 
I  always  have,  and  I  always  shall  be,  of  this  opinion. 
What  is  now  kept  secret,  shall  be  hereafter  displayed  and  heard 

in  the  clearest  light. 
We  pervert  the  noble  faculty  of  speech,  when  we  use  it  to  the 

defaming  or  to  disquiet  our  neighbours. 
Be  more  anxious  to  acquire  knowledge  than  of  showing  it 
The  court  of  chancery  frequently  mitigates  and  breaks  the 

teeth  of  the  common  law. 

Under  Note  2. 

We  were  apprehensive  lest  some  accident  had  happened. 

I  do  not  deny  but  he  has  merit. 

Are  you  afraid  lest  he  will  forget  you  ? 

These  paths  and  bow'rs,  doubt  not  but  our  joint  hands 
Will  keep  from  wilderness. — Milton. 

Under  Note  3. 

It  was  no  other  but  his  own  father. 

Have  you  no  other  proof  except  this  ? 

I  expected  something  more  besides  this. 

He  no  sooner  retires  but  his  heart  burns  with  devotion. 

Such  literary  filching  is  nothing  else  but  robbery. 


172  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Under  Note  4. 

Neither  despise  or  oppose  what  you  do  not  understand. 

He  would  not  either  do  it  himself  nor  let  me  do  it. 

The  majesty  of  good  things  is  such,  as  the  confines  of  them  are 
reverend. 

Whether  he  intends  to  do  so,  I  cannot  tell. 

Send  me  such  articles  only,  that  are  adapted  to  this  market. 

As  far  as  I  am  able  to  judge,  the  book  is  well  written. 

No  errors  are  so  trivial  but  they  deserve  correction. 

It  will  improve  neither  the  mind,  nor  delight  the  fancy. 

The  one  is  equally  deserving  as  the  other. 

There  is  no  condition  so  secure  as  cannot  admit  of  change. 

Do  you  think  this  is  so  good  as  that  ? 

The  relations  are  so  obscure  as  th^y  require  much  thought. 

None  is  so  fierce  that  dare  stir  him  up. 

There  was  no  man  so  sanguine  who  did  not  apprehend  some 
ill  consequence. 

I  must  be  so  candid  to  own  that  I  do  not  understand  it. 

The  book  is  not  as  well  printed  as  it  ought  to  be. 
So  still  he  sat  as  those  who  wait 
Till  judgement  speak  the  doom  of  fate. — Scott. 

RULE  XYIL— PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions  show  the  relations  of  things :  as,  "  He  came 
from  Rome  to  Paris,  in  the  company  of  many  eminent 
men,  and  passed  with  them  through  many  cities." — Ana- 
lectic  Magazine. 

EXCEPTION   FIRST. 

The  preposition  to,  before  an  abstract  infinitive,  and  at  the  head  of  a  phrase 
which  is  made  the  subject  of  a  verb,  has  no  proper  antecedent  term  of  rela- 
tion ;  as,  "  To  learn  to  die,  is  the  great  business  of  life." — Dillwyn.  "  Never- 
theless, to  abide  in  the  flesh,  is  more  needful  for  you." — St.  Paul.  "  To  be 
reduced  to  poverty,  is  a  great  affliction." 

EXCEPTION    SECOND. 

The  preposition  for,  when  it  introduces  its  object  before  an  infinitive, 
4nd  the  whole  phrase  is  made  the  subject  of  a  verb,  has  properly  no  an- 
tecedent term  of  relation ;  as,  "  For  us  to  learn  to  die,  is  the  great  busi- 
ness of  life." — "  Nevertheless,  for  me  to  abide  in  the  flesh,  is  more  need- 
ful for  you." — "  For  an  old  man  to  be  reduced  to  poverty,  is  a  very  great 
affliction." 

OBSERVATIONS    ON   RULE    XVII. 

OBS.  1.-  In  parsing  a  preposition,  the  learner  should  name  the  two 
terms  of  the  relation,  and  apply  the  foregoing  rule.  The  principle  is 
simple  and  etymological,  yet  not  the  less  important  as  a  rule  of  syntax. 
Among  tolerable  writers,  the  prepositions  exhibit  more  errors  than  anj 


SYNTAX. PREPOSITIONS.  173 

other  equal  number  of  words.    This  is  probably  owing  to  the  careless  man- 
ner in  which  they  are  usually  slurred  over  in  parsing. 

OBS.  2. — If  the  learner  be  at  any  loss  to  discover  the  two  terms  of 
relation,  let  him  ask  and  answer  two  questions ;  first,  with  the  interro- 
gative what  before  the  preposition,  to  find  the  antecedent;  and  then, 
with  the  same  pronoun  alter  the  preposition,  to  find  the  subsequent 
term.  Those  questions  answered  according  to  the  sense,  will  always 
give  the  true  terms.  If  one  term  is  obvious,  find  the  other  in  this  way* 
as,  "  Day  unto  day  uttereth  speech,  and  night  unto  night  showeth  knowl- 
edge." — Psal.  What  unto  day  1  Ans.  "  Uttereth  unto  day"  What  unto 
night  1  Ans.  "  Showeth  unto  night"  To  parse  rightly  is  to  understand 
rightly ;  and  what  is  well  expressed,  it  is  a  shame  to  misunderstand  or  mis- 
interpret. 

OBS.  3. — When  a  preposition  begins  or  ends  a  sentence  or  clause,  the  terms 
of  relation  are  transposed ;  as,  "  To  a  studious  man,  action  is  a  relief" — • 
Burgh.  "  Science  they  [the  ladies]  do  not  pretend  TO." — Id.  "  Until  I  have 
done  that  which  I  have  spoken  to  tnee  OF." — Gen.  xxviii.  15. 

OBS.  4. — The  former  or  antecedent  term  of  relation  may  be  a  noun,  an  ad- 
jective, a  pronoun,  a  verb,  a  participle,  or  an  adverb :  the  latter  or  subsequent 
term  may  be  a  noun,  a  pronoun,  a  pronominal  adjective,  an  infinitive  verb, 
or  an  imperfect  or  pluperfect  participle.  The  word  governed  by  the  prepo- 
sition, is  always  the  subsequent  term,  however  placed. 

OBS.  5. — Both  the  terms  of  relation  are  usually  expressed ;  though  either 
of  them  may  be  understood:  as,  1.  The  former — "  All  shall  know  me,  [reck- 
oning] FROM  the  least  to  the  greatest." — Heb.  viii.  11.  [I  say]  "  IN  a  word, 
it  would  entirely  defeat  the  purpose." — Blair.  2.  The  latter — "  Opinions 
and  ceremonies  [which]  they  would  die  FOR." — Locke.  "!N  [#u»e]  who  ob- 
tain defence,  or  who  defend." — Pope. 

OBS.  6. — The  only  proper  exceptions  to  the  foregoing  rule,  are  those 
which  are  inserted  above,  unless  the  abstract  infinitive  used  as  a  predicate 
is  also  to  be  excepted ;  as,  "To  reason  right,  is  to  submit." — Pope.  But 
here  most  if  not  all  grammarians  would  say,  the  verb  is,  is  the  antecedent 
or  governing  term.  The  relation,  however,  is  not  such  as  when  we  say, 
"  He  is  to  submit;"  but,  perhaps,  to  insist  on  a  different  mode  of  parsing  these 
two  infinitives,  would  be  a  needless  refinement.  In  relation  to  the  infini- 
tive, Dr.  Adam  remark  *  that  the  preposition  to  is  often  taken  absolutely  ; 
as,  "  To  confess  the  truth  " — "  To  proceed."  But  the  assertion  is  not 
entirely  true ;  nor  are  his  exanples  appropriate ;  for  what  he  and  many 
other  grammarians  call  the  infinitive  absolute,  evidently  depends  on 
something  understood;  and  the  preposition  is  surely  in  no  instance  inde- 
pendent of  what  follows  it,  and  is  therefore  never  entirely  absolute. 
Prepositions  are  not  to  be  supposed  to  have  no  antecedent  term,  merely 
because  they  stand  at  the  head  of  a  sentence  which  is  made  the  subject  of 
a  verb;  for  the  sentence  itself  often  contains  that  term,  as  in  the  following 
example:  "  In  what  way  mind  acts  upon  matter,  is  unknown."  Herein 
shows  the  relation  between  acts  and  way;  because  it  is  suggested,  that  mind 
acts  IN  some  way. 

OBS.  7. — The  preposition  (as  its  name  implies)  precedes  the  word  which 
it  governs.  But,  in  poetry,  the  preposition  is  sometimes  placed  after  its  ob- 
ject; as, 

"  Wild  Carron's  lonely  woods  among1' — Langhome. 


tcrrogatn 

the  other 

dignified,  and  in  general  more  graceful,  to  place  the  preposition  before  the 

pronoun;  as,  "  To  whom  did  he  speak?" 


174  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

OBS.  9. — Two  prepositions  sometimes  come  together;  as,  "Lambeth  is 
over  against  Westminster-abbey." — Murray. 

"  And  from  before  the  lustre  of  her  face." — Thomson. 

"  Blows  mildew/rom  between  his  shrivel'd  lips." — Cowper. 

These  should  be  written  as  compounds,  and  taken  together  in  parsing;  for 
if  we  parse  them  separately,  we  must  either  call  the  first  an  adverb,  or  sup- 
pose some  very  awkward  ellipsis. 

OBS.  10. — Two  separate  prepositions  have  sometimes  a  joint  reference 
to  the  same  noun :  as,  "  He  boasted  of,  and  contended  for,  the  privilege." 
This  construction  is  formal,  and  scarcely  allowable,  except  in  the  Uw 
style.  It  is  better  to  Bay,  "  He  boasted  of  the  privilege,  and  contended 
for  it." 

OBS.  11. — The  preposition  into,  expresses  a  relation  produced  by  mo- 
tion or  change;  and  in,  the  same  relation,  without  reference  to  motion: 
hence,  "  to  walk  into  the  garden,"  and,  "  to  walk  in  the  garden,"  are  very 
different. 

OBS.  12. — Between  or  betwixt  is  used  in  reference  to  two  things  or  parties : 
among  or  amidst,  in  reference  to  a  greater  number,  or  to  something  by  which 
an  other  may  be  surrounded  ;  as, 

"  Thou  pendulum  betwixt  a  smile  and  tear." — Byron. 
"  The  host  between  the  mountain  and  the  shore." — Id. 
"  To  meditate  amongst  decay,  and  stand 
A  ruin  amidst  ruins." — Id. 

NOTES  TO  RULE  XVII. 

NOTE  I. — Prepositions  must  be  employed  agreeably  to  the 
usage  and  idiom  of  the  language,  so  as  rightly  to  express  the 
relations  intended. 

NOTE  II. — An  ellipsis  of  prepositions  is  inelegant,  except  in 
those  phrases  in  which  long  and  general  use  has  sanctioned  it. 
In  the  following  sentence,  of  is  needed. 

u I  wiH  not  flatter  you, 

That  all  I  see  in  you  is  worthy  love." — Shak. 

FALSE  SYNTAX  UNDER  RULE  XVII. 

Examples  under  Note  1. 
Her  sobriety  is  no  derogation  to  her  understanding. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  relation  between  derogation  and  understanding 
is  not  correctly  expressed  by  the  preposition  to.  But,  according  to  Note  1st 
under  Rule  17th,  "Prepositions  must  be  employed  agreeably  to  the  usacre 
and  idiom  of  the  language,  so  as  rightly  to  express  the  relations  intended." 
This  relation  would  be  better  expressed  by  from ;  thus,  Her  sobriety  is  no 
derogation  from  her  understanding.] 

She  finds  a  difficulty  of  fixing  her  mind. 
This  affair  did  not  fall  into  his  cognizance. 
He  was  accused  for  betraying  his  trust. 
There  was  no  water,  and  he  died  for  thirst. 
I  have  no  occasion  of  his  services. 
You  may  safely  confide  on  him. 


SYNTAX. INTERJECTIONS.  175 

[  entertain  no  prejudice  to  him. 

You  may  rely  in  what  I  tell  you. 

Virtue  and  vice  differ  widely  with  each  other. 

This  remark  is  founded  in  truth. 

After  many  toils,  we  arrived  to  our  journey's  end. 

I  will  tell  you  a  story  very  different  to  that. 

Their  conduct  is  agreeable  with  their  profession. 

Excessive  pleasures  pass  from  satiety  in  disgust. 

I  turned  into  disgust  from  the  spectacle. 

They  are  gone  in  the  meadow. 

Let  this  be  divided  between  the  three. 

The  shells  were  broken  in  pieces. 

The  deception  has  passed  among  every  one. 

They  never  quarrel  among  each  other. 

Amidst  every  difficulty,  he  persevered. 

Let  us  go  above  stairs. 

I  was  at  London,  when  this  happened. 

We  were  detained  to  home,  and  disappointed  in  our  walk. 

This  originated  from  mistake. 

The  Bridewell  is  situated  to  the  west  of  the  City-Hall,  and  it 

has  no  communication  to  the  other  buildings. 
I  am  disappointed  of  the  work ;  it  is  very  inferior  from  what  1 

expected. 

Under  Note  2. 

Be  worthy  me,  as  I  am  worthy  you. — Dry  den. 
They  cannot  but  be  unworthy  the  care  of  others. 
Thou  shalt  have  no  portion  on  this  side  the  river. 
Se?tos  and  Abydos  were  exactly  opposite  each  other. 
Ovid  was  banished  Rome  by  his  patron  Augustus. 

RULE  XVIIL— INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections  have  no  dependent  construction :  as,  "  O  ' 
let  not  thy  heart  despise  me." — Johnson. 

OBSERVATIONS   ON   RULE   XVIII. 

OBS.  1. — To  this  rule  there  are  properly  no  exceptions.  Though  interjec 
lions  are  sometimes  uttered  in  close  connexion  with  other  words,  yet,  being 
mere  signs  of  passion  and  feeling,  they  cannot  have  any  strict  grammatical 
relation,  or  dependence  according  to  the  sense.  Being  destitute  alike  of  re- 
lation, agreement,  and  government,  they  must  be  used  independently,  if 
used  at  all. 

OBS.  2. — The  interjection  O  is  common  to  many  languages,  and  is  fre- 


'reek  gran 

made  this  interjection  the  sign  of  the  vocative  case ;  which  is  the  same  as  the 
nominative  put  absolute  by  address  in  English. 


176  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

OBS.  3. — "Interjections  in  English  have  no  government." — Lowfk. 
When  a  word  not  in  the  nominative  absolute,  follows  an  interjection,  as  part 
of  an  imperfect  exclamation,  its  construction  depends  on  something  under- 
stood; as,  "Ah  Trie/" — that  is,  "Ah!  pity  me." — "  Alas./br  them!"— that  is, 
"  Alas  !  I  sigh  for  them." — "  O  for  that  warning  voice  !" — that  is,  "  O  !  hmo 
I  long  for  that  warning  voice  !" — "  O  !  that  they  were  wise  !" — that  is,  "  O  ! 
how'  I  wish  that  they  were  wise."  Such  expressions,  however,  lose  much 
of  their  vivacity,  when  the  ellipsis  is  supplied. 

OBS.  4. — Interjections  may  be  placed  before  or  after  a  simple  sentence,  and 
sometimes  between  its  parts ;  but  they  are  seldom  allowed  to  interrupt  the 
connexion  of  words  closely  united  in  sense.  Murray's  definition  of  an  in- 
terjection is  faulty,  and  directly  contradicted  by  his  example:  "O  virtue! 
how  amiable  thou  art !" 


II.  GOVERNMENT. 

OBS  1. — Government  has  respect  only  to  nouns,  pronouns,  verbs,  partici- 
ples, and  prepositions ;  the  other  five  parts  of  speech  neither  govern  nor  are 
governed.  The  governing  words  may  be  either  nouns,  verbs,  participles,  or 
prepositions ;  the  words  governed  are  either  nouns,  pronouns,  verbs,  or  par- 
ticiples. In  parsing,  the  learner  must  remember  that  the  rules  of  govern- 
ment are  not  to  be  applied  to  the  governing  words,  but  to  those  which  are 
governed1;  and  which,  for  the  sake  of  brevity,  are  often  technically  named 
after  the  particular  form  or  modification  assumed ;  as,  possessives,  objectives, 
same  cases,  infinitives,  gerundives,  &c.  Taken  in  this  way,  none  of  the  fol- 
lowing rules  can  have  any  exceptions. 

OBS.  2. — The  Arrangement  of  words,  (which  is  treated  of  in  the  observa- 
tions on  the  rules  of  construction,)  is  an  important  part  of  syntax,  in  which 
not  only  the  beauty  but  the  propriety  of  language  is  intimately  concerned, 
and  to  which  particular  attention  should  therefore  be  paid  in  composition. 
But  it  is  to  be  remembered,  that  the  mere  collocation  of  words  in  a  sen- 
tence never  affects  the  method  of  parsing  them ;  on  the  contrary,  the  same 
words,  however  placed,  are  always  to  be  parsed  in  precisely  the  same  way, 
so  long  as  they  express  precisely  the  same  meaning.  In  order  to  show 
that  we  have  parsed  any  part  of  an  inverted  or  difficult  sentence  rightly, 
we  are  at  liberty  to  declare  the  meaning  by  any  arrangement  which  will 
make  the  construction  more  obvious,  provided  we  retain  both  the  sense  and 
all  the  words  unaltered  ;  but  to  drop  or  alter  any  word,  is  to  pervert  the 
text,  and  to  make  a  mockery  of  parsing.  Grammar  rightly  learned,  ena- 
bles one  to  understand  both  the  sense  and  the  construction  of  whatsoever 
is  rightly  written;  and  he  who  reads  what  he  does  not  understand,  reads 
to  little  purpose.  With  great  indignity  to  the  muses,  several  pretenders 
to  grammar  have  foolishly  taught,  that,  "  in  parsing  poetry,  in  order  to  come 
at  the  meaning  of  the  author,  the  learner  will  find  it  necessary  to  transpose 
his  language." — Kirkham's  Gr.  p.  166.  See  also  Merchant,  Wilcox,  Hull, 
and  others,  to  the  same  effect.  To  what  purpose  can  he  transpose  a  sen- 
tence, who  does  not  first  see  what  it  means,  and  how  to  explain  or  parse  it 
as  it  stands  7 

RULE  XIX.— POSSESSIYES. 

A  noun  or  a  pronoun  in  the  Possessive  case,  is  governed 
oy  the  name  of  the  thing  possessed  ;  as, 

"  Theirs  is  the  vanity,  the  learning  thine  ; 

"  Touch'd  by  thy  hand,  again  Rome's  glories  shine." 


SYNTAX.  -  rGSSESSIVES.  177 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULE    XIX. 

OBS.  1.  —  Every  possessive  is  governed  by  some  noun  expressed  or  under- 
stood, except  such  as  (without  the  possessive  sign)  are  put  in  apposition 
with  others  so  governed  ;  and  for  every  possessive  termination  there  must 
be  a  separate  governing  word.  The  possessive  sign  may  and  must  be  omit- 
ted in  certain  cases;  .but  it  is  never  omitted  by  ellipsis,  as  Murray  errone- 
ously teaches.  The  four  linos  of  Note  2d  below,  are  sufficient  to  show,  in 
every  instance,  when  it  must  be  used,  and  when  omitted  :  but  Murray,  after 
as  many  octavo  pages  on  the  point,  still  leaves  it  undetermined.  If  a  per- 
son knows  what  he  means  to  say,  let  him  express  it  according  to  the  note, 
and  he  shall  not  err. 

OBS.  2.  —  The  possessive  case  generally  comes  immediately  before  the  gov- 
erning noun  ;  as,  "  All  nature's  difference  keeps  all  nature's  peace."  —  Pope. 
"Lady!  be  thine  [i.  e.  thy  walk]  the  Christian's  walk."  —  Ch.  Observer. 
But  to  this  general  principle  there  are  some  exceptions  :  as, 

1.  When  an  adjective  intervenes;  as,  "Flora's  earliest  smells."  —  Milton. 
"  Of  Will's  last  night's  lecture."—  Spectator. 

2.  When  the  possession  is  affirmed  or  denied;  as,  "The  book  is  mine, 
and  not  John's"     But  here  the  governing  noun  may  be  supplied  in  its  prop- 
er place;  and,  in  some  such  sentences,  it  must  be,  else  a  pronoun  will  b* 
the  only  governing  word:   as,  "Ye  are  Christ's  [disciples,]  and  Christ  is 
God's  [son."]—  St.  Paul. 

3.  When  the  case  occurs  without  the  sign  ;  as,  "  In  her  brother  Absalom's 
house."  —  Bible.     "  David  and  Jonathan's  friendship."  —  "  Adam  and  Eve's 
morning  hymn."  —  Dr.  Ash.     "  Behold,  the  heaven,  and  the  heaven  of  heav- 
ens, is  the  Lord's  thy  God."  —  Deut.  x.  14. 


OBS.  3.  —  Where  the  governing  noun  cannot  be  easily  mistaken,  it  is  often 
mitted  by  ellipsis;  as,  "  At  the  alderman's"  [house]  —  "  A  book  of  my  bro- 
her's" [6o0A-s]  —  "  A  subject  of  the  emperor's"  [subjects.]  This  is  the  true 
xplanation  of  all  Murray's  "  double  genitives  ;"  for  the  first  noun,  being 


omit 

ther's 

exp 

partitive,  naturally  suggests  a  plurality  of  the  same  kind. 

OBS.  4.  —  When  two  or  more  nouns  of  the  possessive  form  are  in  any  way 
connected,  they  usually  refer  to  things  individually  different,  but  of  the  same 
name  ;  and  when  such  is  the  meaning,  the  governing  noun  is  understood 
wherever  the  sign  is  added  without  it  ;  as, 

"  From  Stiles's  pocket  into  Nokes's"  [pocket.]—  S.  Butler. 
"  Add  Nature's,  Custom's,  Reason's,  Passion's  strife."  —  Pope. 

OBS.  5.  —  The  possessive  sign  is  sometimes  annexed  to  that  part  of  a  com- 
pound name,  which  is,  of  itself,  in  the  objective  case;  as,  "  The  captain-of 
the-s^uard's  house."  —  Bible.  "  The  Bard-qf-  Lomond's  lay  is  done."  —  Hogg, 
"  Of  the  Children-qf-  Israel's  half  thou  shalt  take  one  portion."  —  Num.  xxxi. 
30.  Such  compounds  ought  always  to  be  written  with  hyphens,  and  parsed 
together  as  possessivcs  governed  in  the  usual  way.  The  words  cannot  be 
explained  separately. 

OBS.  6.  —  In  the  following  phrase,  the  possessive  sign  is  awkwardly  added 
to  a  distinct  adjective:  "In  Henry  the  Eighth's  time."  —  Walker's  Key,  In- 
trod.  p.  11.  Better,  "In  the  time"?/  Henry  the  Eighth."  But,  in  the  fol- 
lowing line,  the  adjective  elegantly  takes  the  sign  ;  because  there  is  an  ellip- 
sis of  both  nouns  : 

11  The  rich  man's  joys  increase,  the  poor's  decay."  —  Goldsmith. 

OBS.  7.  —  To  avoid  a  concurrence  of  hissing  sounds,  the  s  is  sometimes 
omitted,  and  the  apostrophe  alone  retained  to  mark  Ihe  possessive  sin- 
gular; as,  "For  conscience'  sake."  —  Bible.  "Moses'  minister."  —  Ibid. 
"  Felix*  room."—  Ibid.  "  Achilles'  wrath."—  -Pope.  But  the  elision  should 


178  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

be  sparingly  indulged.     It  is  in  general  less  agreeable  than  the  regular  form 
as,  Hicks'  for  Hicks's — Barnes'  for  Barnes's. 

OBS.  8. — Whatever  word  or  term  gives  rise  to  the  direct  relation  of  prop- 
erty, and  is  rightly  made  to  govern  the  possessive  case,  must  be  a  noun — 
must  be  the  name  of  some  substance,  quality,  state,  or  action.  When  there- 
fore other  parts  of  speech  assume  this  relation,  they  become  nouns ;  as, 
"  Against  the  day  of  my  burying" — John,  xii.  7.  "  Of  my  whereabout" — 
SJiak.  "The  very  head  and  front  of  my  offending." — Id. 

OBS.  9. — Some  grammarians  say,  that  a  participle  may  govern  the  pos- 
sessive case  before  it,  and  yet  retain  the  government  and  adjuncts  of  a  par- 
ticiple  ;  as,  "  We  also  properly  say,  '  This  will  be  the  effect  of  the  pupifs  com- 
posing frequently.'  " — Murray's  Gram.  "  What  can  be  the  reason  of  the 
committee's  having  delayed  this  business!" — Murray's  Key.  This  construc- 
tion is  faulty,  because  it  confounds  the  properties  of  different  parts  of  speech, 
and  produces  a  hybridous  class  between  the  participle  and  the  noun ;  "  but 
this,"  says  Loicth,  "is  inconsistent;  let  it  be  either  the  one  or  the  other,  and 
abide  by  its  proper  construction."  It  is  also  unnecessary,  because  the  same 
idea  may  be  otherwise  expressed  more  elegantly ;  as,  "  This  will  be  the  effect, 
if  the  pupil  compose  frequently." — "  Why  have  the  committee  delayed  this 
business^" 

NOTES  TO  RULE  XIX. 

NOTE  I. — In  the  use  of  the  possessive  case,  its  appropriate 
form  should  be  observed :  thus,  write  men's  hers,  its,  ours,  yaws, 
theirs  ;  aid  not,  mens\  Aer's,  it's  our's,  your's,  theirs. 

NOTE  II. — When  nouns  of  the  possessive  case,  are  connected 
by  conjunctions,  or  put  in  apposition,  the  sign  of  possession 
must  always  be  annexed  to  such,  and  such  only,  as  immediate- 
ly precede  the  governing  noun,  expressed  or  understood  ;  as; 
"  John  and  Eliza's  teacher  is  a  man  of  more  learning  than 
James's  or  Andrew's." — "  For  David  my  servant's  sake." — Bible. 
"  Lost  in  love's  and  friendship's  smile." — Scott. 

NOTE  III. — The  relation  of  property  may  also  be  expressed 
by  the  preposition  o/*and  the  objective :  as,  "  The  will  of  man  ;" 
for,  "  man's  will."  Of  these  forms,  we  should  adopt  that  which 
will  render  the  sentence  the  most  perspicuous  and  agreeable  ; 
and  by  the  use  of  both,  avoid  an  unpleasant  repetition  of 
either. 

NOTE  IV. — A  noun  governing  the  possessive  plural,  should 
not  be  made  plural,  unless  the  sense  requires  it.  Thus  :  say, 
"  We  have  changed  our  mind"  if  only  one  purpose  or  opinion 
is  meant. 

OBS. — A  noun  tak'en  ficr 
ing  would  require  the 
neck"  —  "  Their   hand"- 
"  Our  life" — are  frequent  in  the  Scriptures,  and  are  not  improper. 

NOTE  V. — The  possessive  case  should  not  be  prefixed  to  a 
participle  that  is  not  taken  in  all  respects  as  a  noun.  The 
following  phrase  is  therefore  wrong  :  "  Adopted  by  the  Goths 


SYNTAX. POSSESSIVES.  1 79 

in  their  pronouncing  the  Greek." — Walker's  Key,  p.  17.     Ex- 
punge their. 

FALSE  SYNTAX  UNDER  RULE  XIX. 

Examples  under  Note  1. 
Thy  ancestors  virtue  is  not  thine.  ^ 

[Not  proper,  because  the  noun  ancestors,  which  is  intended  for  the  pos- 
sessive plural,  has  not  the  appropriate  form  of  that  case.  But,  according  to 
Note  1st  under  Rule  19th,  "  In  me  use  of  the  possessive  case,  its  appropriate 
form  should  be  observed."  An  apostrophe  is  required  after  ancestors ;  thus. 
Thy  ancestors'  virtue  is  not  thine.] 

Mans  chief  good  is  an  upright  mind. 

I  will  not  destroy  the  city  for  ten  sake 

Moses  rod  was  turned  into  a  serpent. 

They  are  wolves  in  sheeps  clothing. 

The  tree  is  known  by  it's  fruit. 

The  privilege  is  not  their's,  any  more  than  it  is  your's. 

Yet  he  was  gentle  as  soft  summer  airs, 

Had  grace  for  others  sins,  but  none  for  theirs'. 

Wider  Note  2. 

There  is  but  little  difference  between  the  Earth  and  Venus's 

diameter. 

This  hat  is  John,  or  James's. 
The  store  is  opposite  to  Morris's  and  Company's. 
This  palace  had  been  the  grand  Sultan's  Mahomet's. 
This  was  the  Apostle's  Paul's  advice. 
Were  Cain's  occupation  and  Abel  the  same  ? 
Were  Cain  and  Abel's  occupation  the  same? 
Were  Cain's  and  Abel's  occupations  the  same  1 
Were  Cain  and  Abel's  parents  the  same  ? 
Were  Cain's  parents  and  Abel  the  same  ? 
Was  Cain's  and  Abel's  father  there  1 
Were  Cain's  and  Abel's  parents  there  ? 

Thy  Maker's  will  has  placed  thee  here, 
A  Maker's  wise  and  good. 

Under  Note  3. 

The  world's  government  is  not  left  to  chance. 
He  was  Louis  the  Sixteenth's  son's  heir. 
The  throne  we  honour  is  the  choice  of  the  people. 
We  met  at  my  brother's  partner's  house. 
An  account  of  the  proceedings  of  the  court  of  Alexander. 
Here  is  a  copy  of  the  Constitution  of  the  Society  of  Teachers 
of  the  city  of  New- York. 


180  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Under  Note  4. 

Their  healths  perhaps  may  be  pretty  well  secured. — Locke. 

We  all  have  talents  committed  to  our  charges. 

For  your  sakes  forgave  I  it,  in  the  sight  of  Christ 

We  are,  for  our  parts,  well  satisfied. 

The  pious  cheerfully  submit  to  their  lots. 

Fools  think  it  not  worth  their  whiles  to  be  wise. 

Under  Note  5. 

I  rewarded  the  boy  for  his  studying  so  diligently. 
Have  you  a  rule  for  your  thus  parsing  the  participle  1 
He  errs  in  his  giving  the  word  a  double  construction. 
By  our  offending  others,  we  expose  ourselves. 
They  deserve  our  thanks,  for  their  quickly  relieving  us. 

RULE  XX.— OBJECTIVES. 

Active- transitive  verbs,  and  their  imperfect  and  pluper- 
fect participles,  govern  the  objective  case  ;  as,  "  I  found  her 
assisting  him" — "  Having  finished  thei00r&,  I  submit  it. 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULE    XX. 

OBS.  1. — Every  objective  is  governed  by  some  verb  or  participle,  accord- 
ing to  this  Rule,  or  by  some  preposition,  according  to  Rule  22d  ;  except  such 
as  are  put  in  apposition  with  others  according  to  Rule  3d,  or  after  an  infini- 
tive )r  participle  according  to  Rule  2lst;  as,  "Like  him  of  Gath,  Goliah" — 
uThey  took  him  to  be  me" 

OBS.  2.- -The  objective  case  generally  follows  the  governing  word :  but 
when  it  is  emphatic,  it  often  precedes  the  nominative ;  as,  "  Me  he  restored 
to  mine  office,  and  him  he  hanged." — Gen.  xli.  13.  "  Home  he  had  riot." — 
Thomson.  "  This  point  they  have  gained."  In  poetry  it  is  sometimes 
placed  between  the  nominative  and  the  verb;  as,  "His  daring  foe  securely 
him  defied." — Milton.  "  The  broom  its  yellow  leaf  hath  shed." — Lang- 
horne.  A  relative  or  an  interrogative  pronoun  is  commonly  placed  at  the 
head  of  its  clause,  and  of  course  it  precedes  the  verb  which  governs  it ;  as, 
"  I  am  Jesus,  whom  thou  persecutest." — Acts.  "  Whom  will  the  meeting 
appoint  7" 

OBS.  3. — Ah  active-transitive  verbs  have  some  noun  or  pronoun  for  their 
object.  Though  verbs  are  often  followed  by  the  infinitive  mood,  or  a  de- 
pendent clause,  forming  a  part  of  the  logical  predicate;  yet  these  terms,  be- 
in  £  commonly  introduced  by  a  connecting  particle,  do  not  constitute  such  an 
object,  as  is  contemplated  in  our  definition  of  a  transitive  verb.  If,  in  the 
sentence,  "  Boys  love  to  play,"  the  verb  is  transitive,  as  several  grammarians 
affirm ;  why  not  also  in  "  Boys  like  to  play."  "  Boys  delight  to  play," 
"  Bovs  seem  to  play,"  "  Boys  cease  to  play,"  and  the  like?  The  construc- 
tion is  precisely  the  same.  It  must,  however,  be  confessed,  that  some  verbs 
«vhi;h  thus  take  the  infinitive  after  them,  cannot  otherwise  be  intransi- 
tive. 

OBS.  4. — The  word  that,  which  is  often  employed  to  introduce  a  claust, 
is,  by  some  grammarians,  considered  as  a  pronoun,  representing  the 
Hnuse  which  follows  it.  And  their  opinion  seems  to  be  warranted  both  ' 


SYNTAX.— OBJECTIVES.  18* 

by  the  origin  and  the  general  import  of  the  particle.  But  in  conformity  to 
general  custom,  and  to  his  own  views  of  the  practical  purposes  of  grammat- 
ical analysis,  the  author  has  ranked  it  with  the  conjunctions.  And  he  thinks 
it  hetter,  to  call  those  verbs  intransitive,  which  are  followed  by  that  and  a 
dependent  clause,  than  to  supply  the  very  frequent  ellipses  which  the  other 
explanation  supposes.  To  explain  it  as  a  conjunction,  connecting  an  active- 
transitive  verb  and  its  object,  (as  several  respectable  grammarians  do,)  appears 
to  involve  some  inconsistency. 

OBS.  5. — Active-transitive  verbs  are  often  followed  by  two  objectives  in 
apposition  :  as,  "  Thy  saints  proclaim  thee  king." — Cowptr.  "  The  Author 
of  my  being  formed  me  man.  — Murray.  "  And  God  called  the  firmament 
Heaven." — Bible.  And,  in  such  a  construction,  the  direct  object  is  some- 
times placed  before  the  verb  j  as,  "  And  Simon  he  surnamed  Peter." — Mark 
iii.  15. 

OBS.  6. — When  a  verb  is  followed  by  two  words  in  the  objective  case 
which  are  neither  in  apposition  nor  connected  by  a  conjunction,  one  of  then 
is  governed  by  a  preposition  understood ;  as,  "  I  paid  [to]  him  the  money."— 
"  They  offered  [to]  me  a  seat." — "  He  asked  [of]  them  the  Question" — "  ; 
yielded,  and  unlock'd  [to]  her  all  my  heart." — Milton. 

r\T*~     rr        r_   ,          i i_    ._  _^_  •      i  _    Ai. 


Sltl 

paid  the 

NOTES  TO  RULE  XX. 

NOTE  I. — Those  verbs  and  participles  which  require  an  ob 
ject,  should  not  be  used  intransitively  ;  as,  "  She  affects  [kind 
ness,]  in  order  to  ingratitate  [herself']  with  you." — "  I  will  no\ 
allow  of  it."  Expunge  of,  that  allow  may  govern  the  pro- 
noun it. 

NOTE  II. — Those  verbs  and  participles  which  do  not  admit 
an  object,  should  not  be  used  transitively;  as,  "The  planters 
grow  cotton."  Say  raise,  or  cultivate. 

OBS. — Some  verbs  will  govern  a  kindred  noun,  or  its  pronoun,  but  nr 
other ;  as,  "  He  lived  a  virtuous  life" — " Hear,  I  pray  you,  this  dream  whict, 
I  have  dreamed." — Gen.  xxxvii.  6. 

NOTE  III. — The  passive  verb  should  always  take  for  its  sub- 
ject the  direct  object  of  the  active-transitive  verb  from  which  it 
is  derived;  as,  (Active,)  "  They  denied  me  this  privilege." — 
(Passive,)  "  This  privilege  was  denied  me" — not,  "  /  was  denied 
this  privilege." 

FALSE  SYNTAX  UNDER  RULE  XX. 
She  I  shall  more  readily  forgive. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  she  is  in  the  nominative  case,  and  is 
used  as  the  object  of  the  active-transitive  verb  shall  forgive.  But  according 
lo  Rule  20th,  "Active-transitive  verbs,  and  their  imperfect  and  pluperfect 
participles,  govern  the  objective  case." — Therefore,  j>7ie  should  be  her;  thus, 
Her  I  shall  more  readily  forgive.] 

Thou  only  have  I  chosen. 

Who  shall  we  send  on  this  errand? 

My  father  allowed  mv  brother  and  I  to  accompany  him. 


182  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

He  that  is  idle  and  mischievous,  reprove  sharply. 

Who  should  I  meet  but  my  old  friend ! 

How  long  will  it  take  ye  to  do  it  ? 

He  accosts  whoever  he  meets. 

Whosoever  the  court  favours,  is  safe. 

They  that  honour  me  I  will  honour. 

Who  do  you  think  I  saw  the  other  day  1 

Under  Note  1. 

The  ambitious  are  always  seeking  to  aggrandize. 
I  must  premise  with  three  circumstances. 
This  society  does  not  allow  of  personal  reflections. 
False  accusation  cannot  diminish  from  real  merit. 
His  servants  ye  are  to  whom  ye  obey. 

Under  Note  2. 

Good  keeping  thrives  the  herd. 
We  endeavoured  to  agree  the  parties. 
Being  weary,  he  sat  him  down. 
Go,  flee  thee  away  into  the  land  of  Judah. 
The  popular  lords  did  not  fail  to  enlarge  themselves  on  the 
subject. 

Under  Note  3. 

They  were  refused  the  benefit  of  their  recantation. 
Believers  are  not  promised  temporal  riches. 
We  were  shown  several  beautiful  pictures. 
But,  unfortunately,  I  was  denied  the  favour. 
You  were  paid  a  high  compliment. 
I  have  never  been  asked  the  question. 

RULE   XXL— SAME  CASES. 

Active-intransitive,  passive,  and  neuter  verbs,  and  their 
participles,  take  the  same  case  after  as  before  them,  when 
both  words  refer  to  the  same  thing  :  as,  "He  returned  a 
friend,  who  came  a, foe." — Pope.  "  The  child  was  named 
John." — "  It  could  not  he  he." 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULE    XXI. 

OBS.  1. — The  verbs  described  in  this  rule  do  not,  like  active-transitive 
verbs,  require  a  regimen,  or  case  after  them ;  but  their  finite  tenses  may 
be  followed  by  a  nominative,  and  their  infinitives  and  participles  by  a 
nominative  or  an  objective,  explanatory  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  which 
precedes  them.  And  as  these  cases  belong  after  the  verb  or  participle, 
they  may  in  a  certain  sense  be  said  to  be  governed  by  it.  But  the  rule 
is  perhaps  more  properly  a  rule  of  agreement ;  the  word  which  follows 


SYNTAX. SAME   CASES.  183 

the  Tcrb  or  participle,  may  be  said  to  be  in  apposition  with  that  which  pre- 
cedes it.  [See  Rule  3d.] 

OBS.  2.— In  this  rule  the  terms  after  and  before  refer  rather  to  th« 
order  of  the  sense  and  construction,  than  to  the  placing  of  the  words.  The 
proper  subject  of  the  verb  is  the  nominative  to  it,  or  before  it,  by  Rule 
£d;  and  the  other  nominative,  however  placed,  belongs  after  it,  by  Rule 
21st.  In  general,  however,  the  proper  suhject  precedes  the  verb,  and  the 
other  word  follows  it,  agreeably  to  the  literal  sense  of  the  rule.  But 
when  the  proper  subject  is  placed  after  the  verb,  as  in  the  nine  instances 
speciiied  under  Rule  2d,  the  explanatory  nominative,  is  commonly  in- 
troduced still  later;  as,  "But  be  t/iou  an  example  of  the  believers." — 
1  Tim.  iv.  12. 

OBS.  3. — In  interrogative  sentences,  the  terms  are  usually  transposed,  or 
both  are  placed  after  the  verb  ;  as, 

"  Whence,  and  what  art  thou,  execrable  shape  V — Milton. 
"  Art  thou  that  traitor  angel  ?  art  thou  he  ?" — Idem. 

OBS.  4. — In  a  declarative  sentence,  there  may  be  a  rhetorical  or  poetical 
transposition  of  the  terms ;  as,  "I  was  eyes  to  the  blind,  and  feet  was  /  to 
the  lame."— Job,  xxix.  15. 

"  Far  other  scene  is  Tlirasymene  now." — Byron. 

OBS.  5. — In  some  peculiar  constructions,  both  words  naturally  come  be- 
fore the  verb;  as,  "I  know  not  who  she  is." — "  Inquire  thou  whose  son  tfie 
stripling  is." — 1 .51am.  xvii.  5G.  "  Man  would  not  be  the  creature  which  he 
now  is." — Blair.  "  I  could  not  guess  wlw  it  should  be." — Addison.  And 
they  are  sometimes  placed  in  this  manner  by  liyperbaton,  or  transposition ; 
as,  "Yet  He  it  is." — Young.  "No  contemptible  orator  he  was." — Dr. 
Blair. 

OBS.  6. — As  infinitives  and  participles  have  no  nominatives  of  their  own, 
such  as  are  not  transitive  in  themselves,  may  take  different  cases  after  them; 
and,  in  order  to  determine  what  case  it  is  that  follows  them,  the  learner  must 
carefully  observe  what  preceding  word  denotes  the  same  person  or  thing. 
This  word  being  often  remote  and  sometimes  understood,  the  sense  is  the 
only  clew  to  the  construction.  Examples :  "  Who  then  can  bear  the  thought 
of  being  an  outcast  from  his  presence?" — Addisori.  "/  cannot  help  being 
so  passionate  an  admirer  as  I  am." — Stecle.  "  To  recommend  wliat  the 
soberer  part  of  mankind  look  upon  to  be  a  trifle." — Id.  "  It  would  be  a  ro- 
mantic madness,  for  a  man  to  be  a  lard  in  his  closet." — Id.  "  To  affect  to 
be  a  lord  in  one's  closet,  would  be  a  romantic  madness"  In  this  last  sen- 
tence, lord  is  in  the  objective  after  to  be;  and  madness  in  the  nominative  af- 
ter would  be. 

FALSE  SYNTAX  UNDER  RULE  XXI. 

We  did  not  know  that  it  was  him. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  him,  which  belongs  after  the  neuter 
verb  iras,  is  in  the  objective  case,  and  does  not  agree  with  the  pronoun  it, 
which  belongs  before  it  as  the  nominative ;  both  words  referring  to  the  same 
thing.  But,  according  to  Rule  21st,  "  Active-intransitive,  passive,  and  neu- 
ter verbs,  take  the  same  case  after  as  before  them,  when  both  words  refer  to 
the  same  thing."  Therefore,  him  should  be  he ;  thus,  We  did  not  know 
that  it  was  lie.} 

We  thought  it  was  thee. 

I  would  act  the  same  part,  if  I  were  him. 

It  could  not  have  been  her. 


184  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

It  is  not  me  that  he  is  angry  with. 

They  believed  it  to  be  I. 

It  was  thought  to  be  him. 

If  it  had  been  her,  she  would  have  told  us. 

We  know  it  to  be  they. 

Whom  do  you  think  it  is? 

Who  do  you  suppose  it  to  be  ? 

We  did  not  know  whom  they  were. 

Thou  art  him  whom  they  described. 

Impossible  !  it  can't  be  me. 

Whom  did  he  think  you  were  ? 

Whom  say  ye  that  I  am  ? 

RULE  XXIL— OBJECTIVES. 

Prepositions  govern  the  objective  case  :  as, 

"  Truth  and  good  are  one  : 
And  beauty  dwells  in  them,  and  they  in  hcr> 
With  like  participation." — Akenside. 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULE    XXII. 

OBS.  1. — Most  of  the  prepositions  may  take  the  imperfect  participle  for 
their  object ;  and  some,  the  pluperfect :  as,  '•'  On  opening  the  trial,  they  ac- 
cused him  of  having  defrauded  them." — "A  quick  wit,  a  nice  judgement,  &c. 
could  not  raise  this  man  above  being  received  only  upon  the  foot  of  contribu- 
ting to  mirth  and  diversion." — Steele.  And  the  preposition  to  is  often  follow- 
ed by  an  infinitive.  But,  as  prepositions,  when  they  introduce  declinable 
words,  or  words  that  have  cases,  always  govern  the  objective,  there  are  prop- 
erly no  exceptions  to  the  foregoing  rule. — Let  not  the  learner  suppose,  that 
infinitives  or  participles,  when  they  are  governed  by  prepositions,  are  there- 
fore in  the  objective  case ;  for  case  is  no  attribute  of  either  of  them.  They  are 
governed  as  participles  or  as  infinitives,  and  not  as  cases.  The  mere  fact  of 
government  is  so  far  from  creating  the  modification  governed,  that  it  neces- 
sarily presupposes  it  to  exist. 

OBS.  2. — Prepositions  are  sometimes  ettiptically  construed  with  adjectives^ 
as,  in  vain,  in  secret,  at  first,  on  high;  i.  e.  in  a  vain  manner,  in  secret 
plaoes,  at  the  first  time,  on  high  places.  Such  phrases  imply  time,  place,  de- 
gree, or  manner,  and  are  equivalent  to  adverbs.  In  parsing,  the  learner  may 
supply  the  ellipsis. 

OBS.  3. — In  a  few  instances  prepositions  precede  advejbs;  as,  at  onc6, 
from  above,  for  ever.  These  should  be  united,  and  parsed  as  adverbs,  or 
else  the  adverb  must  be  parsed  as  a  noun,  according  to  observation  3d  on 
Rule  15th. 

OBS.  4. — When  nouns  of  time  or  measure  are  connected  with  verbs  or  ad- 
jectives, the  prepositions  which  govern  them,  are  generally  suppressed :  as, 
w  We  rode  sixty  miles  that  day  ;"  that  is,  "  through  sixty  miles  on  that  day." 
-"  The  wall  is  ten  feet  high  ;"  that  is,  "  high  to  ten  feet."  In  parsing,  sup- 
ply the  ellipsis ;  or  else  you  must  take  the  time  or  measure  adverbially,  as 
relating  to  the  verb  or  adjective  qualified  by  it.  Such  expressions  as,  "  A 
board  of  six  feet  long," — "  A  boy  of  twelve  years  old,"  are  wrong.  Strike  out 
of;  or  say,  "A  board  of  six  feet  in  length" — "A  boy  of  twelve  years  of 
age." 


SYNTAX. OBJECTIVES.  185 

OBS.  5. — After  the  adjectives  like,  near,  and  nigh,  the  preposition  to  or 
unto  is  often  understood  ;  as,  "  It  is  Wee  [to  or  unto]  silver." — Allen. 
"How  like  the  former!" — On/den.  "Near  yonder  copse." — Goldsmith. 
"  Nigh  this  recess." — Garth.  As  similarity  and  proximity  are  relations, 
and  not  qualities,  it  might  seem  proper  to  call  like,  near,  and  nigh,  preposi- 
tions ;  arid  some  grammarians  have  so  classed  the  last  two.  Dr.  Johnson 
seems  to  be  inconsistent  in  calling  near  a  preposition  in  the  phrase,  "  So 
near  thy  heart,"  and  an  adjective,  in  the  phrase,  "Being  near  their  master!" 
We  have  not  placed  them  with  the  prepositions  for  four  reasons:  (1.)  be- 
cause they  are  sometimes  compared;  (2.)  because  they  sometimes  have  ad- 
verbs evidently  relating  to  them;  (3.^)  because  the  preposition  to  or  unto  is 
sometimes  expressed  after  them ;  and,  (4.)  because  the  words  which  usually 
stand  for  them  in  the  learned  languages,  are  clearly  adjectives. — Like  when 
it  expresses  similarity  of  manner,  and  near  and  nigh  when  they  express 
proximity  of  degree,  are  adverbs. 

OBS.  6. — The  word  worth  is  often  followed  by  an  adjective,  or  a  par- 
ticiple, which  it  appears  to  govern  ;  as,  "If  your  arguments  produce  no 
conviction,  they  are  worth  nothing  to  me.  — Deattie.  "  To  reign  is 
worth  ambition." — Milton.  "  This  is  life  indeed,  life  worth  preserving." 
— Addison.  It  is  not  easy  to  determine  to  what  part  of  speech  worth 
here  belongs.  Dr.  Johnson  calls  it  an  adjective,  but  says  nothing  of  the 
object  after  it,  which  some  suppose  to  be  governed  by  of  understood.  In 
this  supposition,  it  is  gratuitously  assumed,  that  worth  is  equivalent  to 
worthy,  after  which  of  should  be  expressed;  as,  "Whatsoever  is  worthy 
of  their  love,  is  worth  their  anger." — DenJiam.  But,  as  worth  appears  to 
have  no  certain  characteristic  of  an  adjective,  some  call  it  a  noun,  and 
suppose  a  double  ellipsis;  as,  "The  book  is  [of  the]  worth  [of]  a  dollttr." 
This  is  still  less  satisfactory;  and,  as  the  whole  appears  to  be  mere 
guess-work,  we  see  no  good  reason  why  worth  is  not  a  preposition,  gov- 
erning the  noun  or  participle.  If  an  adverb  precede  worth,  it  may  as 
well  be  referred  to  the  foregoing  verb,  as  when  it  occurs  before  any  other 
preposition. 

OBS.  7. — Both  Dr.  Johnson  and  Home  Tooke,  (who  never  agreed  if 
they  could  help  it,)  unite  in  sayincr  that  worth,  in  the  phrases,  "  Wo 
worth  the  man," — "  Wo  worth  the  Jay,"  &c.  is  from  the  imperative  of 
the  Saxon  verb  wrythan  or  weorthan,  to  be;  i.  e.  "Wo  be  [to]  the  man," 
or,  "  Wo  betide  the  man,"  &c.  And  the  latter  affirms,  that,  as  by  is 
from  the  imperative  of  bcon,  to  be,  so  with  (though  admitted  to  be  some- 
times from  withan,  to  join)  is  often  no  other  than  this  same  imperative  verb 
wyrth  or  worth  :  if  so,  the  words  by,  with,  and  worth,  were  originally  synon- 
ymous, and  should  now  be  referred  to  one  and  the  same  class.  The  da- 
tive case,  or  oblique  object  which  they  governed  as  Saxon  verbs,  becomes 
their  proper  object,  when  taken  as  English  prepositions;  and  in  this  also 
they  appear  to  be  alike. 

OBS.  8. — After  verbs  of  giving,  procuring,  and  some  ethers,  there  is  usually 
an  ellipsis  of  to  or  for  before  the  objective  of  the  person ;  as,  "  Give  [to] 
him  water  to  drink." — "  Buy  [for]  me  a  knife."  So  in  the  exclamation, 
"  Wo  is  me!"— meaning,  "  Wo  is  to  me !" 

FALSE  SYNTAX  UNDER  RULE  XXII. 
•     It  rests  with  thou  and  me  to  decide. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  thou  is  in  the  nominative  case,  and  if 
governed  by  the  preposition  with.  But,  according  to  Rule  2*2d,  "  Prepofli 
tions  govern  the  objective  case."  Therefore,  tlum  should  be  thee;  thus,  I* 
rests  with  th.ee  and  me  to  decide.] 

16* 


1 86  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Let  that  remain  a  secret  between  you  and  I. 
I  lent  the  book  to  some  one,  I  know  not  who. 
Let  no  quarrel  occur  among  ye. 
Who  did  he  inquire  for  ?     Thou. 
From  he  that  is  needy  turn  not  away. 
We  are  all  accountable,  each  for  his  own  act's. 
Does  that  boy  know  who  he  is  speaking  to  ? 
I  bestow  my  favours  on  whosoever  I  will. 

RULE  XXIII.— INFINITIVES. 

The  preposition  TO  governs  the  Infinitive  mood,  and 
commonly  connects  it  to  a  finite  verb:  as,  "I  desire  TO 
learn" — Dr.  Adam. 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULE    XXIII. 

OBS.  1. — No  word  is  more  variously  explained  by  grammarians,  than 
this  word  TO,  which  is  prefixed  to  the  verb  in  the  infinitive  mood.  John- 
son, Walker,  Scott,  Todd,  and  other  lexicographers,  call  it  an  adverb  ; 
but,  in  explaining  its  use,  they  say  it  denotes  certain  relations,  which  it 
is  not  the  office  of  an  adverb  to  express.  [See  Johnson's  Dictionary,  4to.] 
Lmclh,  Murray,  Webster,  Coar,  Comly,  and  others,  call  it  a  preposition; 
and  some  of  these  ascribe  to  it  the  government  of  the  verb,  and  others, 
do  not.  Lowth  says,  "  The  preposition  TO  placed  before  the  verb,  makes 
the  infinitive  mood."  Skinner,  in  his  Canones  Etymologici,  calls  it  an 
equivocal  article.  Home  Tooke,  who  shows  that  most  of  our  conjunctions 
and  prepositions  may  be  traced  back  to  ancient  verbs  and  nouns,  says 
that  to  has  the  same  origin  as  do,  and  he  seems  to  consider  it  an  auxiliary 
verb.  Many  are  content  to  call  it  a  prefix,  a  particle,  a  sign  of  the  infinitive, 
&c.  without  telling  us  why  or  how  it  is  so,  or  to  what  part  of  speech  it  be- 
longs. If  it  be  a  part  of  the  infinitive,  it  is  a  verb,  and  must  be  classed 
with  the  auxiliaries.  Dr.  Ash  placed  it  among  the  auxiliaries;  but  ho  says, 
the  auxiliaries  "seem  to  have  the  nature  of  adverbs."  We  have  given  in 
the  preceding  rule  that  explanation  which  we  consider  to  be  the  most  cor- 
rect and  the  most  simple.  Who  first  parsed  the  infinitive  in  this  manner  we 
know  not ;  the  doctrine  is  found  in  several  English  grammars,  one  of  which, 
written  by  a  classical  teacher,  was  published  in  London  in  1796. — See 
Coar's  Grammar,  12mo.  p.  263. 

OBS.  2. — Most  English  grammarians  have  considered  the  word  to  as  a 
part  of  the  infinitive  ;  and,  like  the  teachers  of  Latin,  have  referred  the 
government  of  this  mood  to  a  preceding  verb.  But  the  rule  which  they 
give  is  partial,  and  often  inapplicable ;  and  their  exceptions  to  it  are  nume- 
rous anu  puzzling.  They  teach  that  at  least  half  the  different  parts  of 
speech  frequently  govern  the  infinitive:  if  so,  there  should  be  a  distinct  rule 
for  each ;  for  why  should  the  government  of  one  part  of  speech  be  made 
an  exception  to  that  of  an  other  1  and,  if  this  be  done,  with  respect  to  the 
infinitive,  why  not  also  with  respect  to  the  objective  case  1  In  all  instances 
to  which  their  rule  is  applicable,  the  rule  here  given  amounts  to  the  same 
thing;  and  it  obviates  the  necessity  for  their  numerous  exceptions,  and  the 
embarrassment  arising  from  other  constructions  of  the  infinitive  not  noticed 
in  them. 

OBS.  3. — The  infinitive  thus  admits  a  simpler  solution  in  English,  than 
in  most  other  languages.  In  French,  the  infinitive,  though  frequently 


SYNTAX. ENFUNITIVES.  187 

placed  in  immediate  dependence  on  an  other  verb,  may  also  be  governed 
by  several  different  prepositions,  (as  a,  de,  pour,  sans,  apres,)  according  to 
the  sense.*  In  Spanish  and  Italian,  the  construction  is  similar.  In  Latin 
and  Greek,  the  infinitive  is,  for  the  most  part,  dependent  on  an  other  verb. 
But,  according  to  the  grammars,  it  may  stand  for  a  noun  in  all  the  six  cases; 
and  many  have  called  it  an  indeclinable  noun.  See  the  Port  Royal  Latin 
and  Greek  Grammars;  in  which  several  peculiar  constructions  of  the  infin- 
itive, are  referred  to  the  government  of  a  preposition. 

OBS.  4. — Though  the  infinitive  is  commonly  made  an  adjunct  to  some 
finite  verb,  yet  it  may  be  joined  to  almost  all  the  other  parts  of  speech,  or  to 
an  other  infinitive ;  as, 

1.  To  a  noun ;  as,  "  lie  had  leave  to  go." 

2.  To  an  adjective;  as,  "  We  were  anxious  to  see  you." 

3.  To  a  pronoun;  as,  "  I  discovered  him  to  be  a.  scholar." 

4.  To  a  verb  in  the  infinitive;  as,  "  To  cease  to  do  evil." 

5.  To  a  participle;  as,  "Endeavouring  to  escape,  he  fell." 

6.  To  an  adverb;  as,  "  She  is  old  enough  to  go  to  school." 

7.  To  a  conjunction ;  as,  "  He  knows  Setter  than  to  trust  you." 

8.  To  a  preposition ;  as,  "I  was  about  to  write" — Rev.  x.  4. 

9.  To  an  interjection;  (by  ellipsis;)  as,  "  O  to  forget  her!" — Young. 
OBS.  5. — The  infinitive  is  the  mere  verb,  without  affirmation  ;  and,  in 

some  respects,  resembles  a  noun.     It  may  stand  for — 

1.  A  subject;  as,  "  To  steal  is  sinful." 

2.  A  predicate  ;  as,  "  To  enjoy  is  to  obey." — Pope. 

3.  A  purpose,  or  an  end ;  as,  "  He's  gone  to  do  it." — Edgeworlh. 

4.  An  employment;  as,  "  He  loves  to  ride." 

5.  A  cause;  as,  "  I  rejoice  to  hear  it." 

6.  A  coming  event;  as,  "  A  structure  soon  to  fall." — Cowper. 

7.  A  term  of  comparison;  as,  "  He  was  so  much  affected  as  to  weep. ' 
OBS.  G. — Anciently,  the  infinitive  was  sometimes  preceded  by  for  as  well 

as  to;  as,  "I  went  up  to  Jerusalem  for  to  worship." — Acts,  xxiv.  11. 
11  What  went  ye  out  for  to  see  V—Luke,  vii.  26. 


1  Learn  skilfullie  how 


"  Each  grain  for  to  laie  by  itself  on  a  mow." — Tuss£r. 
Modern  usage  rejects  the  former  preposition. 

OBS.  7. — The  infinitive  sometimes  depends  on  a  verb  understood;  as, 
"  To  be  candid  with  you,  [/  confess]  I  was  in  fault."  Some  grammarians 
nave  erroneously  taught  that  the  inhnitive  in  such  sentences  is  put  abso- 
lute. 

OBS.  8. — The  infinitive,  or  a  phrase  of  which  the  infinitive  is  a  part,  be- 
ing introduced  apparently  as  the  subject  of  a  verb,  but  superseded  by  some 
other  word,  is  put  absolute,  or  left  unconnected  by  pleonasm;  as, 

"  To  be,  or  not  to  be — that  is  the  question." — Stiakspeare. 

OBS.  9. — The  infinitive  of  the  verb  be,  is  often  understood ;  as,  "  I  sup- 
pose it.[to  be]  necessary."  [See  Obs.  %d  on  Rule  xxiv.] 

OBS.  10. — The  infinitive  usually  follows  the  word  on  which  it  depends ; 
Dut  this  order  is  sometimes  reversed  ;  as, 

"  To  catch  your  vivid  scenes,  too  gross  her  hand." — Thomson. 

*  "  La  preposition,  est  un  mot  indeclinable,  place  devant  les  noms,  les  pro- 
noms,etles  yer/>«s,(ju'elle  re^it. — The  preposition  is  an  indeclinable  word  placed 
before  the  nouns,  pronouns,  and  verbs,  wliich  it  governs." — PerrirCs  Grants 
mar,  p.  152. 

"  Every  verb  placed  immediately  after  an  other  verb,  or  after  a  preposition, 
ought  to  be  put  in  the  infinitive ;  because  it  is  then  the  regimen  of  the  verb  or 
preposition  which  precedes." — Gram.  des.Gram.  par  Girault  Du  Vivier,  p.  774. 


188  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

FALSE  SYNTAX  UNDER  RULE  XXIII. 

Ought  these  things  be  tolerated  ? 

[Not  proper,  because  the  infinitive  be  tolerated,  is  not  preceded  by  the 
preposition  to.  But,  according  to  Rule  *23d,  "  The  preposition  to  governs 
the  infinitive  mood,  and  commonly  connects  it  to  a  finite  verb."  Therefore, 
to  should  be  inserted  ;  thus,  Ought  these  things  to  be  tolerated  1] 

Please  excuse  my  son's  absence. 
Cause  every  man  go  out  from  me. 
Forbid  them  enter  the  garden. 
Do  you  not  perceive  it  move  ? 
Allow  others  discover  your  merit. 
He  was  seen  go  in  at  that  gate. 
Permit  me  pass  this  way. 

RULE  XXIY.— INFINITIVES. 

The  active  verbs  bid,  dare,  feel,  hear,  let,  make,  needy 
see,  and  their  participles,  take  the  Infinitive  after  them, 
without  the  preposition  TO  :  as,  "  If  he  bade  thee  depart. 
how  darest  thou  stay  ?J 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULE    XXIV. 

OBS.  1. — The  preposition  is  almost  always  employed  after  the  passive 
form  of  these  verbs,  and  in  some  instances  after  me  active:  as,  "  He  was 
heard  to  say." — "I  cannot  see  to  do  it." — "  What  would  dare  to  molest  him 
who  might  call,  on  every  side,  to  thousands  enriched  by  his  bounty?' — Dr. 
Johnson. 

OBS.  2. — The  auxiliary  be  of  the  passive  infinitive  is  also  suppressed, 
after  feel,  tear,  make,  and  see;  as,  "I  heard  the  letter  read" — not,  "be 
read." 

FALSE  SYNTAX  UNDER  RULE  XXIV. 

They  need  not  to  call  upon  her. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  preposition  to  is  inserted  before  call,  which  fol- 
lows the  active  verb  need.  But,  according  to  Rule  *24th,  "  The  active  verbs 
bid,  dare,  feel,  hear,  let,  make,  need,  see,  and  their  participles,  take  the  inlini- 
tive  after  them,  without  the  preposition  to."  Therefore  to  should  be  omitted; 
thus,  They  need  not  call  upon  her.] 

I  felt  a  chilling  sensation  to  creep  over  me. 

I  have  heard  him  to  mention  the  subject. 

Bid  the  boys  to  come  in  immediately. 

I  dare  to  say  he  has  not  got  home  yet. 

Let  no  rash  promise  to  be  made. 

We  sometimes  see  bad  men  to  be  honoured. 

A  good  reader  will  make  himself  to  be  distinctly  heard. 

RULE  XXV.— NOM.  ABSOLUTE. 
A  noun  or  a  pronoun  is  put  absolute  in  the  nominative, 
when  its  case  depends  on  no  other  word :  as,  "  He  failing^ 


SYNTAX. NOM.    ABSOLUTE.  189 

who  shall  meet  success?" — "Your  fathers,  where  are 
they  ?  and  the  prophets,  do  they  live  forever?" — Zech.  i.  5. 

"  This  said,  he  form'd  thee,  Adam!  thee,  O  man! 
Dust  of  the  ground  !" — Milton. 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    RULE    XXV. 

OBS.  1. — In  parsing  the  nominative  absolute,  tell  h&ic  it  is  put  so,  whethei 
with  a  participle,  by  direct  address,  by  pleonasm,  or  by  exclamation  ;  for  a 
noun  or  a  pronoun  is  put  absolute  in  the  nominative,  under  the  following 
Jour  circumstances: 

1.  When,  with  a  participle,  it  is  used  to  express  a  cause,  or  a  concomitant 
fact;  as, 

"  Thau  looking  on, 

Shame  to  be  overcome  or  overreach'd, 
Would  utmost  vigor  raise." — Milton. 

2.  When,  by  direct  address,  it  is  put  in  the  second  person,  and  set  off 
from  the  verb  by  a  comma;  as,  "At  length,  Segcd,  reflect  and  be  wise." — 
Dr.  Johnson. 

3.  When,  by  pleonasm,  it  is  introduced  abruptly  for  the  sake  of  emphasis; 
as,  "  He  that  is  in  the  city,  famine  and  pestilence  shall  devour  him." — "  Gad, 
a  troop  shall  overcome  him." — Gen.  xlix.  19.     "  The  north  and  the  south, 
thou  hast  created  them." — Psalm,  Ixxxix.  12.     [See  the  figure  Pleonasm^ 
in  FiRT  iv.] 

4.  When,  by  mere  exclamation,  it  is  used  without  address,  and  without 
other  words  expressed  or  implied  to  give  it  construction ;  as, 

"  Oh  !  deep  enchanting  prelude  to  repose, 
The  dawn  of  bliss,  the  twilight  of  our  woes !" —  Campbell. 

OBS.  2. — The  nominative  put  absolute  with  a  participle,  is  equivalent  to  a 
dependent  clause  commencing  with  when,  while,  if,  since,  or  because;  as, 
"  I  being  a  child," — equal  to,  "  When  I  was  a  child." 

OBS.  3. — The  participle  being  is  often  understood  after  nouns  or  pronouns 
put  absolute;  as, 

"  Alike  in  ignorance,  his  reason  [ ]  such, 

Whether  he  thinks  too  little  or  too  much." — Pope. 

OBS.  4. — All  nouns  in  the  second  person  are  either  put  absolute,  according 
to  Rule  25th,  or  in  apposition  with  their  own  pronouns  placed  before  them, 
according  to  Rule  3d :  as,  "  This  is  the  stone  which  was  set  at  nought  of 
you  builders." — Acts. 

"  Peace !  minion,  peace !  it  boots  not  me  to  hear 
The  selfish  counsel  of  you  hangers-on" — Author. 

OBS.  5. — Nouns  preceded  by  an  article,  are  almost  always  in  the  third 
person;  and,  in  exclamatory  phrases,  such  nouns  sometimes  appear  to 
nave  no  determinable  construction ;  as,  "  O  the  depth  of  the  riches  both  of 
the  wisdom  and  knowledge  of  God." — Rom.  xi.  33. 

OBS.  6. — The  case  of  nouns  used  in  exclamations,  or  in  mottoes  and 
abbreviated  sayings,  often  depends,  or  may  be  conceived  to  depend,  on 
something  understood ;  and,  when  their  construction  can  be  satisfactorily 
explained  on  the  principle  of  ellipsis,  they  are  not  put  absolute.  The 
following  examples  may  perhaps  be  resolved  in  this  manner,  though  the  ex- 
pressions will  lose  much  of  tneir  vivacity:  "A  horse!  a  horse!  my  king- 
dom for  a  horse!" — ShaJc.  "Heaps  upon  heaps" — " S/dn  for  skin  — "  An 
eye  for  an  eye,  and  a  tooth  for  a  tooth"—"  Day  after  day"—"  World  without 
end."— Bible. 


190  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

FALSE  SYNTAX  UNDER  RULE  XXV. 

Him  having  ended  his  discourse,  the  assembly  dispersed. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  hi?n,  whose  case  depends  on  no  other 
word,  is  in  the  objective  case.  But,  according  to  Rule  25th,  "  A  noun  or  a 
pronoun  is  put  absolute  in  the  nominative,  when  its  case  depends  on  no 
other  word."  Therefore,  him  should  be  he;  thus,  He  having  ended  his  dis- 
course, the  assembly  dispersed.] 

Me  being  young,  they  deceived  me. 

Them  refusing  to  comply,  I  withdrew. 

Thee  being  present,  he  would  not  tell  what  he  knew. 

The  child  is  lost ;  and  me,  whither  shall  I  go  ? 

Oh  happy  us  !  surrounded  thus  with  blessings  ! — Murray. 

"  Thee  too  !  Brutus,  my  son !"  cried  Ca?sar  overcome. 

But  him,  the  chieftain  of  them  all, 
His  sword  hangs  rusting  on  the  wall. 

Her  quick  relapsing  to  her  former  state, 
With  boding  fears  approach  the  serving  train. 

There  all  thy  gifts  and  graces  we  display, 
Thee,  only  thee,  directing  all  our  way. 

RULE  XXYL— SUBJUNCTIVES. 

A  future  contingency  is  best  expressed  by  a  verb  in  the 
Subjunctive  present;  and  a  mere  supposition  with  indefi- 
nite time,  by  a  verb  in  the  Subjunctive  imperfect:  but  a 
conditional  circumstance  assumed  as  a  fact,  requires  the 
Indicative  mood  :  as,  "  If  thou  forsake  him,  he  will  cast 
thee  off  forever." — "  If  it  were  not  so,  I  would  have  told 
you." — "  If  thou  wen^  nothing  would  be  gained." — 
"  Though  he  is  poor,  he  is  contented." 

NOTES  TO  RULE  XXVI. 

NOTE  I. — In  connecting  words  that  express  time,  the  order 
and  fitness  of  time  should  be  observed.  Thus:  in  stead  of, 
u  I  Jiave  seen  him  last  week"  say,  "  I  saw  him  last  week ;"  and 
in  stead  of,  "  I  saw  him  this  week"  say,  "  I  have  seen  him  this 
week." 

NOTE  II. — Verbs  of  commanding,  desiring,  expecting,  ho- 
ping, intending,  permitting,  and  some  others,  in  all  their  tenses, 
refer  to  actions  or  events,  relatively  present  or  future :  one 
should  therefore  say,  "  I  hoped  you  would  come" — not,  "  would 
have  come ;"  and,  "  I  intended  to  do  it" — not,  "  to  have  done 
it ;"  &c. 

NOTE  III. — Propositions  that  are  at  all  times  equally  true  or 
false  should  generally  be  expressed  in  the  present  tense ;  as, 


SYNTAX. SUBJUNCTIVES.  191 

u  He  seemed  hardly  to  know,  that  two  and  two  make  four11 — 
not,  "  made.13 

FALSE  SYNTAX  UNDER  RULE  XXVI. 
Examples  under  the  first  clause  of  Rule  26. 
He  will  not  be  pardoned,  unless  he  repents. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  verb  repents,  which  is  used  to  express  a  future 
contingency,  is  in  the  indicative  mood.  But,  according  to  the  first  clause  of 
Rule  26th,  "A  future  contingency  is  best  expressed  by  a  verb  in  the  sub- 
junctive present."  Therefore,  repents  should  be  repent;  thus,  He  will  not 
be  pardoned,  unless  he  repent.] 

He  will  maintain  his  cause,  though  he  loses  his  estate. 

They  will  fine  thee,  unless  thou  ofFerest  an  excuse. 

I  shall  walk  out  in  the  afternoon,  unless  it  rains. 

Let  him  take  heed  lest  he  falls. 

CH  condition  that  he  comes,  I  consent  to  stay. 

If  he  is  but  discreet,  he  will  succeed. 

Take  heed  that  thou  speakest  not  to  Jacob. 

If  thou  castest  me  off,  I  shall  be  miserable. 

Send  them  to  me,  if  thou  pleasest. 

Watch  the  door  of  thy  lips,  lest  thou  utterest  folly. 

Under  the  second  clause  of  Rule  26. 
And  so  would  I,  if  I  was  he. 

[Not  proppr,  because  the  verb  was,  which  is  used  to  express  a  mere  sup- 
position, with  indefinite  time,  is  in  the  indicative  mood.  But,  according  to 
the  second  clause  of  Rule  26th,  "A  mere  supposition,  with  indefinite  time, 
is  best  expressed  by  a  verb  in  the  subjunctive  imperfect."  Therefore,  was 
should  be  were;  thus,  And  so  would  I,  if  I  were  he.] 

If  I  was  to  write,  he  would  not  regard  it. 
If  thou  feltest  as  I  do,  we  should  soon  decide. 
•  Though  thou  sheddest  thy  blood  in  the  cause,  it  would  but 

prove  thee  sincerely  a  fool. 

If  thou  lovedst  him,  there  would  be  more  evidence  of  it. 
I  believed,  whatever  was  the  issue,  all  would  be  well. 
If  love  was  never  feigned,  it  would  appear  to  be  scarce. 
There  fell  from  his  eyes  as  it  had  been  scales. 
If  he  was  an  impostor,  he  must  have  been  detected. 
Was  death  denied,  all  men  would  wish  to  die. 
O  that  there  was  yet  a  day  to  redress  thy  wrongs ! 
Though  thou  wast  huge  as  Atlas,  thy  efforts  would  be  vain. 

Under  the  last  clause  of  Rule  26. 
If  he  know  the  way,  he  does  not  need  a  guide. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  verb  know,  which  is  used  to  express  a  con- 
ditional circumstance  assumed  as  a  fact,  is  in  the  subjunctive  mood.  But, 
according  to  the  last  clause  of  Rule  26th,  "A  conditional  circumstance 


J92  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

assumed  as  a  fact,  requires  the  indicative  moou."    Therefore,  know  should 
be  knows;  thus,  If  he  knows  the  way,  he  does  not  need  a  guide.] 

Though  he  seem  to  be  artless,  he  has  deceived  us. 

If  he  think  as  he  speaks,  he  may  safely  be  trusted. 

Though  this  event  be  strange,  it  certainly  did  happen. 

If  thou  love  tranquillity  of  mind,  seek  it  not  abroad. 

If  seasons  of  idleness  be  dangerous,  what  must  a  continued 

habit  of  it  prove  ? — Blair. 
Though  he  were  a  son,  yet  learned  he  obedience  by  the  things 

which  he  suffered. 
I  knew  thou  wert  not  slow  to  hear. 

Under  Note  1. 

The  work  has  been  finished  last  week. 

He  was  out  of  employment  this  fortnight. 

Thig  mode  of  expression  has  been  formerly  in  use. 

I  should  be  much  obliged  to  him  if  he  will  attend  to  it. 

I  will  pay  the  vows  which  my  lips  have  uttered  when  I  was 

in  trouble. 
I  have  compassion  on  the  multitude,  because  they  continue 

with  me  now  three  days. 

I  thought,  by  the  accent,  that  he  had  been  speaking  to  his  child. 
And  he  that  was  dead  sat  up  and  began  to  speak. 
Thou  hast  borne,  and  hast  patience,  and  for  my  name's  sake 

hast  laboured,  and  hast  not  fainted. — Rev  ii.  3. 
Ye  will  not  come  unto  me  that  ye  might  have  life. 
A.t  the  end  of  this  quarter,  I  shall  be  at  schod  two  years. 
We  have  done  no  more  than  it  was  our  duty  to  have  done. 

Under  Note  2. 

We  expected  that  he  would  have  arrived  last  night 

Our  friends  intended  to  have  met  us. 

We  hoped  to  have  seen  you. 

He  would  not  have  been  allowed  to  have  entered. 

Under  Note  3. 

The  doctor  affirmed,  that  fever  always  produced  thirst. 
The  ancients  asserted,  that  virtue  was  it  own  reward. 

PROMISCUOUS  EXAMPLES  OF  FALSE  SYNTAX. 

LESSON  I. 

[It  is  here  expected  that  the  learner  will  ascertain  for  himself  the  proper 
form  of  correcting  each  example,  according  to  the  particular  Rule  or  Note 
under  which  it  belongs.] 

There  is  a  spirit  in  man ;  and  the  inspiration  of  the  Almighty 
giveth  them  understanding. 


SYNTAX. PROMISCUOUS.  191 

My  people  doth  not  consider. 

I  have  never  heard  who  they  invited. 

Then  hasten  thy  return  ;  for,  thee  away 
Nor  lustre  has  tbd  sun,  nor  joy  the  day. 

I  am  as  well  as  when  you  was  here. 

That  elderly  man,  he  that  came  in  late,  I  supposed  to  bo  the 
superintendent. 

All  the  virtues  of  mankind  are  to  be  counted  upon  a  few  fin- 
gers, but  his  follies  and  vices  are  innumerable. 

It  must  indeed  be  confessed  that  a  lampoon  or  a  satire  do  not 
carry  in  them  robbery  or  murder. 

There  was  more  persons  than  one  engaged  in  this  affair. 

A  man  who  lacks  ceremony,  has  need  for  great  merit. 

A  wise  man  avoids  the  showing  any  excellence  in  trifles. 

The  most  important  and  first  female  quality  is  sweetness  of 
temper. 

We  choose  rather  lead  than  follow. 

Ignorance  is  the  mother  of  fear,  as  well  as  admiration. 

He  must  fear  many,  who  many  fear. 

Every  one  partake  of  honour  bestowed  on  the  worthy. 

The  ki*\g  nor  the  queen  were  not  at  all  deceived. 

Was  there  no  difference,  there  would  be  no  choice. 

I  had  rather  have  been  informed. 

Must  thee  return  this  evening  ? 

Life  and  death  is  in  the  power  of  the  tongue. 

I  saw  a  person  that  I  took  to  be  she. 

Let  him  be  whom  he  may,  I  shall  not  stop. 

This  is  certainly  an  useful  invention. 

That  such  a  spirit  as  thou  dost  not  understand  me. 
It  is  no  more  but  justice,'  quoth  the  farmer. 

LESSON  II. 

Great  improvements  has  been  made. 
It  is  undoubtedly  true  what  I  have  heard. 
The  nation  is  torn  by  feuds  which  threaten  their  ruin, 
The  account  of  these  transactions  were  incorrect. 
Godliness  with  contentment  are  great  gain. 
The  number  of  sufferers  have  not  been  ascertained. 
There  are  one  or  more  of  them  yet  in  confinement 
They  have  chose  the  wisest  part. 
He  spent  his  whole  life  in  doing  of  good. 
They  know  scarcely  that  temperance  is  a  virtue. 
I  am  afraid  lest  I  have  laboured  in  vain. 
Mischief  to  itself  doth  back  recoil. 
This  construction  sounds  rather  harshly. 
What  is  the  cause  of  the  leaves  curling  ? 
Was  it  thee,  that  made  the  noise  ? 

17 


194  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Let  thy  flock  clothe  upon  the  naked. 

Wisdom  and  knowledge  is  granted  unto  thee. 

His  conduct  was  surprising  strange. 

This  woman  taught  my  brother  and  I  to  read. 

Let  your  promises  be  such  that  you  can  perform. 

We  shall  sell  them  in  the  state  they  now  are. 

We  may  add  this  observation,  however. 

This  came  in  fashion  when  I  was  young. 

I  did  not  use  the  leaves,  but  root  of  the  plant. 

We  have  used  every  mean  in  our  power. 

Pass  ye  away,  thou  inhabitant  of  Saphir. — Micah,  i.  II. 

Give  every  syllable  and  every  letter  their  proper  sound. 

LESSON  III. 

To  know  exactly  how  much  mischief  may  be  ventured  upon 
with  impunity,  are  knowledge  enough  for  some  folks. 

Every  leaf  and  every  twig  teem  with  life. 

I  was  rejoiced  at  this  intelligence. 

At  this  stage  of  advancement,  there  is  little  difficulty  in  the  pu- 
pil's understanding  the  passive  and  neuter  verbs. 

I  was  afraid  that  I  should  have  lost  the  parcel. 

Which  of  all  these  patterns  is  the  prettier  ? 

They  which  despise  instruction  shall  not  be  wise. 

Both  thou  and  thy  advisers  have  mistaken  their  interest. 

A  idle  soul  shall  suffer  hunger. 

The  lips  of  knowledge  is  a  precious  jewel. 

I  and  my  cousin  are  requested  to  attend. 

Can  only  say  that  such  is  my  belief. 

This  is  different  from  the  conscience  being  made  to  feel. 

Here  is  ground  for  their  leaving  the  world  with  peace. 

Where  are  you  all  running  so  fast  ? 

A  man  is  the  noblest  work  of  creation. 

Of  all  other  crimes  wilful  murder  is  the  most  atrocious. 

The  tribes  whom  I  visited,  are  partially  civilized. 

From  hence  I  conclude  they  are  in  error. 

The  girls'  books  are  neater  than  the  boys. 

I  intended  to  have  transcribed  it. 

Shall  a  character  made  up  of  the  very  worst  passions,  pass  un- 
der the  name  of  a  gentleman  1 

Rhoda  ran  in,  and  told  how  Peter  stood  before  the  gate. 

What  is  latitude  and  longitude  ? 

Cicero  was  more  eloquent  than  any  Roman. 

Who  dares  apologize  for  Pizarro  ? — who  is  but  another  name 
for  rapacity ! 

LESSON  IV. 
Tell  me  whether  you  will  do  it  or  not 


SYNTAX, — PROMISCUOUS.  195 

After  the  most  straitest  sect,  I  lived  a  Pharisee. 
We  have  no  more  but  five  loaves  and  two  fishes. 
I  know  not  who  it  was  who  did  it. 

Doubt  not,  little  though  there  be, 

But  I'll  cast  a  crumb  to  thee. — Langhorne. 

This  rule  is  the  best  which  can  be  given. 

I  have  never  seen  no  other  way. 

These  are  poor  amends  for  the  men  and  treasures  which  we 

have  lost. 

Dost  thou  know  them  boys  ? 
This  is  a  part  of  my  uncle's  father's  estate. 
Many  people  never  learn  to  speak  correct. 
Some  people  are  rash,  and  others  timid :  those  apprehend  too 

much,  these  too  little. 

Is  it  lawful  for  us  to  give  tribute  to  Caesar  or  no  ? 
It  was  not  worth  while  preserving  any  permanent  enmity. 
1  no  sooner  saw  my  face  in  it,  but  I  was  startled  at  the  shortness 

of  it. 

Every  person  is  answerable  for  their  own  conduct. 
They  are  men  that  scorn  a  mean  action,  and  who  will  exert 

themselves  to  serve  you. 
1  do  not  recollect  ever  having  paid  it. 
The  stoics  taught  that  all  crimes  were  equal. 
Every  one  of  these  theories  are  now  exploded. 
Either  of  these  four  will  answer. 
There  is  no  situation  where  he  would  be  happy. 
The  boy  has  been  detected  in  stealing,  that  you  thought  so 

clever. 

I  will  meet  thee  there  if  thee  please. 
He  is  not  so  sick,  but  what  he  can  laugh. 
These  clothes  does  not  fit  me. 
The  audience  was  all  very  attentive. 

Wert  thou  some  star,  which  from  the  ruin'd  roof 
Of  shak'd  Olympus  by  mischance  didst  fall ! — Milton, 

LESSON  V. 

Was  the  master,  or  many  of  the  scholars,  in  the  room  ? 
His  father's  and  mother's  consent  was  asked. 
Whom  is  he  supposed  to  be  ? 
He  is  an  old  venerable  man. 
It  was  then  my  purpose  to  have  visited  Sicily. 
It  is  to  the  learner  only,  and  he  that  is  in  doubt,  that  this  assist- 
ance is  recommended. 

There  are  not  the  least  hope  of  his  recovery. 
Anger  and  impatience  is  always  unreasonable. 


196  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

In  his  letters,  there  are  not  only  correctness,  but  elegance. 

Opportunity  to  do  good  is  the  highest  preferment  which  a  no- 
ble mind  desires. 

The  year  when  he  died,  is  not  mentioned. 

Had  I  knew  it,  I  should  not  have  went. 

Was  it  thee,  that  spoke  to  me  ? 

The  house  is  situated  pleasantly. 

He  did  it  as  private  as  he  possibly  could. 

Subduing  our  passions  is  ;he  noblest  of  conquests. 

James  is  more  diligent  than  thee. 

Words  interwove  with  sighs  found  out  their  way. 

He  appears  to  be  diffident  excessively. 

The  number  of  our  days  are  with  thee. 

Like  a  father  pitieth  his  children,  so  the  Lord  pitieth  them  that 
fear  him. — Psalm,  ciii.  13. 

The  circumstances  of  this  case,  is  different. 

Well  for  us,  if  some  such  other  men  should  rise ! 

A  man  that  is  young  in  years,  may  be  old  in  hours,  if  he  have 
lost  no  time. 

The  chief  captain,  fearing  lest  Paul  should  have  been  pulled 
in  pieces  of  them,  commanded  the  soldiers  to  go  down,  and 
to  take  him  by  force  from  among  them. — Acts,  xxiii.  10. 

Nay,  weep  not,  gentle  Eros  ;  there  is  left  us 
Ourselves  to  end  ourselves. — Shakspeare. 

GENERAL  RULE  OP  SYNTAX. 

In  the  formation  of  sentences,  the  consistency  and  adap- 
tation of  all  the  words  should  be  carefully  observed ;  and 
a  regular,  clear,  and  correspondent  construction  should  be 
preserved  throughout. 

GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS    ON    THE    SYNTAX. 

OBS.  1. — In  proportion  as  the  rules  of  Syntax  are  made  few  and  general, 
they  must  be  either  vague  or  liable  to  exceptions.  The  number  of  the  prin- 
ciples which  deserve  to  be  placed  in  the  rules,  is  not  fixed  by  any  obvious 
distinction ;  hence  the  diversity  in  the  number  of  the  rules  as  given  by  dif 
ferent  grammarians.  In  this  matter  a  middle  course  seems  to  be  best.  We 
have  therefore  taken  the  parts  of  speech  in  their  order,  and  comprised  an. 
the  general  principles  of  relation,  agreement,  and  government,  in  twenty- 
six  leading  Rules.  Of  these  rules,  eight  (namely,  the  1st,  the  4th,  the  14th, 
the  15th,  the  16th,  the  17th,  the  18th,  and  the  19th,)  are  used  only  in 
parsing;  two  (namely,  the  13th  and  the  26th,)  are  necessary  only  for  the 
correction  of  false  syntax ;  the  remaining  sixteen  answer  the  double  purpose 
of  parsing  and  correction.  The  Exceptions,  of  which  there  are  twenty-four, 
belong  to  ten  different  rules.  The  Notes,  of  which  there  are  eighty-seven, 
ere  subordinate  rules  of  syntax,  formed  for  the  detection  of  errors.  The 
Observations,  of  which  there  are  about  two  hundred,  are  chiefly  designed  to 
explain  the  arrangement  of  words,  and  whatever  is  difficult  or  peculiar  in 
construction. 


SYNTAX.— GENERAL   RULE.  197 

DBS.  2. — The  General  Rule  of  Syntax,  being  designed  to  meet  every 
possible  form  of  error  in  construction,  necessarily  includes  all  the  par- 
ticular rules  and  notes.  It  is  too  broad  to  convey  very  definite  instruc- 
tion, and  ought  not  to  be  applied  where  a  special  rule  or  note  is  applicable* 
A  few  examples,  not  properly  coming  under  any  other  head,  will  serve  to 
show  its  use  and  application  :  such  examples  are  given  in  the  false  syntax 
below. 

OBS.  3. — In  the  foregoing  pages,  the  principles  of  syntax,  or  construc- 
tion, are  supposed  to  be  pretty  fully  developed ;  but  there  may  be  in  com- 
position many  errors  of  such  a  nature  that  no  rule  of  grammar  can  show 
what  should  be  substituted.  The  greater  the  inaccuracy,  the  more  difficult 
the  correction ;  because  the  sentence  may  require  a  change  throughout. 
Thus,  the  following  definition,  though  very  short,  is  a  fourfold  solecism : 
"  Number  is  the  consideration  of  an  object,  as  one  or  more" — Murray.  This 
sentence,  though  written  by  one  grammarian,  and  copied  by  twenty  others, 
cannot  be  corrected  but  by  changing  every  word  in  it:  but  this  will  of 
course  destroy  its  identity,  and  form  an  other  sentence,  not  an  amendment. 
It  is  unfortunate  for  youth,  that  a  volume  of  these  incorrigible  sentences 
mijrht  be  culled  from  our  grammars!  Examples  of  false  syntax  cannot 
embrace  what  is  either  utterly  wrong  in  thought,  or  utterly  unintelligible 
in  language;  for  the  writer's  meaning  must  be  preserved  in  the  correc- 
tion, and  where  no  sense  is  discovered,  particular  improprieties  can  nevei 
be  detected  and  proved.  The  sentence  above  is  one  which  we  cannot  cor- 
rect ;  but  we  can  say  of  it— -first,  that  number  in  grammar  can  never  be 
defined,  because  unity  and  plurality  have  no  common  property — secondly, 
that  number  is  not  consideration,  in  any  sense  of  the  word — thirdly,  that 
an  object  is  known  to  be  one  object,  by  mere  intuition,  and  not  by  consider^ 
ation — and,  fourthly,  that  he  who  considers  an  object  as  more  than  one,  mis* 
conceives  it!! !! 

OBS.  4. — In  the  first  eighteen  rules,  we  have  given  the  syntax  of  all 
the  parts  of  speech  in  regard  to  relation  and  agreement.  And,  by  pla- 
cing the  rules  in  the  order  of  the  parts  of  speech,  we  hope  to  have  re- 
lieved the  pupil  from  all  difficulty  in  recollecting  the  numbers  by  which 
they  are  distinguished;  for,  in  the  exercise  of  parsing,  it  is  very  im- 
portant that  the  Rules  be  distinctly  and  accurately  quoted  by  thfl  pup'l. 
Relation  and  agreement  have  been  taken  together,  because  they  could 
not  properly  be  separated.  One  word  may  relate  to  an  other  and  not 
agree  with  it ;  but  there  is  never  any  necessary  agreement  between  words 
that  have  not  a  relation,  or  a  dependence  on  each  other  according  to  the 
sense. 

OBS.  5. — The  English  language  having  few  inflections,  has  also  few 
concords  or  agreements.  Articles,  adjectives,  and  participles,  which  in 
many  other  languages  agree  with  their  nouns  in  gender,  number,  and 
case,  have  usually  in  English,  no  modifications  in  which  they  can  agree 
with  their  nouns.  Lowth  says,  "The  adjective  in  English,  having  no 
variation  of  gender  and  number,  cannot  but  agree  with  the  substantive 
in  these  respects."  What  then  is  the  agreement  of  words  7  Can  it  be  any 
thing  else  than  their  similarity  in  some  common  property  or  modifica- 
tion 7  And  is  it  not  obvious,  that  no  two  things  in  nature  can  anywise 
agree  or  be  ali/ce,  except  in  some  quality  or  accident  which  belongs  to 
each  of  them  ?  Yet  how  often  have  Murray  and  others,  as  well  as  Lowth, 
forgotten  this  !  To  give  one  instance  out  of  many :  "  Gender  has  respect 
only  to  the  third  person  singular  of  the  pronouns,  he,  shs,  it" — Murray, 
Pierce,  Flint,  Lyon,  Bacon,  Russell,  Fisk,  Maltby,  Alger,  Miller,  Mer- 
chant, Kirkham,  and  other  idle  copyists.  Yet,  according  to  these  same 
gentlemen,  "Gender  is  the  distinction  of  nouns,  with  regard  to  sex;1' 

17* 


198  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

and,  "  Pronouns  must  always  agree  with  their  antecedents,  and  the  nouns 
for  which  they  stand,  in  gender."  Now,  not  one  of  these  three  careless  as- 
sertions can  possibly  be  reconciled  with  either  of  the  others !  1 1 

FALSE  SYNTAX  UNDER  THE  GENERAL  RULE. 
If  I  can  contribute  to  your  and  my  country's  glory. — Gold. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  your  has  not  a  clear  and  regular  con- 
struction. But,  according  to  the  General  Rule  of  Syntax,  "  In  the  forma- 
tion of  sentences,  the  consistency  and  adaptation  of  all  the  words  should  b« 
carefully  observed ;  and  a  regular,  clear,  and  correspondent  construction 
should  be  preserved  throughout."  The  sentence  having  a  double  meaning, 
may  be  corrected  in  two  ways ;  thus,  If  I  can  contribute  to  our  country  8 
gbry — or,  If  I  can  contribute  to  your  glory  and  that  of  my  country.] 

Is  there,  then,  more  than  one  true  religion  ? 

The  laws  of  Lycurgus  but  substituted  insensibility  to  enjoy- 
ment.— Goldsmith. 

Rain  is  seldom  or  ever  seen  at  Lima. 

The  young  bird  raising  its  open  mouth  for  food,  is  a  natural 
indication  of  corporeal  want. — Cardell. 

There  is  much  of  truth  in  the  observation  of  Ascham. — Id. 

Adopting  the  doctrine  which  he  had  been  taught. — Id. 

This  library  exceeded  half  a  million  volumes. — Id. 

The  Coptic  alphabet  was  one  of  the  latest  formed  of  any. — Id. 

Many  evidences  exist  of  the  proneness  of  men  to  vice. — Id. 

To  perceive  nothing,  or  not  to  perceive,  is  the  same. 

The  king  of  France  or  England  was  to  be  the  umpire. 

He  rnay  be  said  to  have  saved  the  life  of  a  citizen  ;  and,  con- 
sequently, entitled  to  the  reward. 

The  men  had  made  inquiry  for  Simon's  house,  and  stood  be- 
fore the  gate. — Acts,  x.  17. 

Give  no  more  trouble  than  you  can  possibly  help. 

The  art  of  printing  being  then  unknown,  was  a  circumstance 
in  some  respects  favourable  to  the  freedom  of  the  pen. 

An  other  passion  which  the  present  age  is  apt  to  run  into,  is 
to  make  children  learn  all  things. — Goldsmith. 

It  requires  few  talents  to  which  most  men  are  not  born,  or,  at 
least,  may  not  acquire. 

Nor  was  Philip  wanting  in  his  endeavours  to  corrupt  Demos- 
thenes, as  he  had  most  of  the  leading  men  in  Greece. — Gold' 
smith. 

The  Greeks,  fearing  to  be  surrounded  on  all  sides,  wheeled 
about  and  halted,  with  the  river  on  their  backs. — Id. 

Poverty  turns  our  thoughts  too  much  upon  the  supplying  of 
our  wants  ;  and  riches,  upon  enjoying  our  superfluities. 

That  brother  should  not  war  with  brother, 
And  worry  and  devour  each  other. — Cowper. 


SYNTAX. PARSING,  199 

Such  is  the  refuge  of  our  youth  and  age  ; 

The  first  from  hope,  the  last  from  vacancy. — Byron. 

Triumphant  Sylla  !  couldst  thou  then  divine, 

By  ought  than  Romans  Rome  should  thus  be  laid?-—  Id. 

EXAMPLES  FOR  PARSING. 

CHAPTER  VIII.— SYNTACTICAL. 

In  the  Eighth  Chapter  are  exemplified  nearly  all  the 

Exceptions  and  Observations  under  the  Rules  of 

Syntax  and  the  Notes. 

LESSON  I.— PROSE. 

The  philosopher,  the  saint,  or  the  hero — the  wise,  iJie  good, 
or  the  great  man — very  often  lies  hid  and  concealed  in  a  ple- 
beian, which  a  proper  education  might  have  disinterred  and 
)rought  to  light. — Addison. 

The  long-suffering  of  God  waited  in  the  days  of  Noah,  while 
the  ark  was  a  preparing. — 1  Pet.  iii.  20. 

Mercy  and  truth  are  met  together  ;  righteousness  and  peace 
have  kissed  each  other. — Ps.  ixxxv.  10. 

In  vain  do  they  worship  me,  teaching  for  doctrines  the  com- 
mandments of  men. — Matt.  xv.  9. 

Knowest  thou  not  this  of  old,  since  man  was  placed  upon  the 
earth,  that  the  triumphing  of  the  wicked  is  short,  and  the  joy  of 
the  hypocrite  but  for  a  moment? — Job,  xx.  4,  5. 

They  shall  every  man  turn  to  his  own  people,  and  flee  every 
one  into  his  own  land. — Isaiah,  xiii.  14. 

Wherefore  ye  needs  must  be  subject,  not  only  for  wrath,  but 
also  for  conscience^  sake. — Rom.  xiii.  5. 

But  Peter  continued  knocking ;  and  when  they  had  opened 
the  door,  and  saw  him,  they  were  astonished. — Acts,  xii.  16. 

Ye  have  heard  that  it  hath  been  said, '  An  eye  for  an  eye, 
•«id  a  tooth  for  a  tooth.'— Matt.  v.  38.  [See  Exod.  xxi.  24.] 

For  now  I  see  through  a  glass  darkly  ;  but  then,  face  to  face : 
now  I  know  in  part ;  but  then  shall  I  know  even  as  also  I  am 
known. — 1  Cor.  xiii.  12. 

Every  man  should  let  his  man-servant,  and  every  man  his 
maid-servant,  being  an  Hebrew  or  an  Hebrewess,  go  free  ;  that 
none  should  serve  himself  of  them,  to  wit,  of  a  Jew  his  brother. 
— Jer.  xxxiv.  9. 

Then  the  king  of  Babylon's  army  besieged  Jerusalem  :  and 
Jeremiah  the  Prophet  was  shut  up  in  the  court  of  the  prison 
which  was  in  the  king  of  JudaWs  house. — Jer.  xxxii.  2. 

/  Tertius,  who  wrote  this  epistle,  salute  you  in  the  Lord.— 
Rom.  xvi.  22. 

And  this  is  the  record  of  John,  when  the  Jews  sent  prie&ts 


200  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

and  Levites  from  Jerusalem  to  ask  him, c  Who  art  thmi  T  And 
he  confessed,  and  denied  not,  but  confessed,  <  I  am  not  the  Christ.1 
And  they  asked  him.  <  What  then  ?  art  thou  Elias  ?'  and  he 
saith, c  I  am  not.' — £  Art  than  mat  prophet  ?'  and  he  answered, 
iNo?—John,i.  19. 

The  new  moons  and  sabbaths,  the  calling  of  assemblies,  1 
cannot  away  with :  it  is  iniquity,  even  the  solemn  meeting. — 
Isaiah^  i.  13. 

LESSON  II.— PROSE. 

The  rudiments  of  every  language,  therefore,  must  be  given 
as  a  task,  not  as  an  amusement. — Goldsmith. 

Time  we  ought  to  consider  as  a  sacred  trust  committed  to  us 
by  God,  of  which  we  are  now  the  depositaries,  and  [of  which! 
we  are  to  render  an  account  at  the  last. — Blair. 

Thus  Justice,  properly  speaking,  is  the  only  virtue  ;  and  au 
the  rest  have  their  origin  in  it. —  Goldsmith. 

True  generosity  is  a  duty  as  indispensably  necessary  as  those 
[which  are]  imposed  upon  us  by  law. — Id. 

To  teach  men  to  be  orators,  is  little  less  than  to  teach  them  tc 
be  poets. — Id. 

Lysippus  is  told  that  his  banker  asks  a  debt  of  forty  pounds, 
and  that  a  distressed  acquaintance  petitions  for  the  same  sum. 
He  gives  it,  without  hesitating,  to  the  latter ;  for  he  demands 
is  a  fivour  what  the  former  requires  as  a  debt. — Id. 

1  That  I  know  not  what  I  want,'  said  the  prince, i  is  the  cause 
of  my  complaint ;  if  I  had  any  known  want,  I  should  have  a 
certain  wish  ;  that  wish  would  excite  endeavour  ;  and  I  should 
not  then  repine  to  see  the  sun  move  so  slowly  towards  the  west- 
ern mountain,  or  lament  when  the  day  breaks,  and  sleep  will 
no  longer  hide  me  from  myself — Dr.  Johnson. 

1  My  friends,'  said  he, 4 1  have  seriously  considered  our  man- 
ners and  our  prospects ;  and  [I]  find  that  we  have  mistaken 
our  own  interest.  Let  us  therefore  stop,  while  to  stop  is  in  our 
power.' — They  stared  awhile  in  silence  one  upon  an  other,  and 
eU  last  drove  him  away  by  a  general  chorus  of  continued  laugh- 
ter.— Id. 

The  laws  of  eastern  hospitality  allowed  them  to  enter,  and 
the  master  welcomed  them,  like  a  man  liberal  and  wealthy. 
He  was  skilful  enough  in  appearances  soon  to  discern  that  they 
'were  no  common  guests,  and  spread  his  table  with  magnifi- 
cence.— Id. 

The  year  before,  he  had  so  used  the  matter,  that,  what  by 
force,  what  by  policy,  he  had  taken  from  the  Christians  above 
thiny  small  castles. — Knolles. 

We  exhorted  them  to  trust  in  God,  and  to  love  one  an  other. 
— /.  Campbell. 


SYNTAX. PARSING.  2  0 1 

LESSON  III.-^POETRY. 

See  the  sole  bliss  Heaven  could  on  all  bestow, 

Which  who  but  feels,  can  taste,  but  thinks,  can  know; 

Yet,  poor  with  fortune,  and  with  learning  blind, 

The  bad  must  miss,  the  good,  untaught,  will  find. — Pope 

There  are,  who,  deaf  to  mad  Ambition's  call, 
Would  shrink  to  hear  th'  obstrep'rous  trump  of  fame ; 
Supremely  blessed,  if  to  their  portion  fall 
Health,  competence,  and  peace. — Beattie. 

The  end  and  the  reward  of  toil  is  rest. — Id. 

Shame  to  mankind  !  Philander  had  his  foes ; 
He  felt  the  truths  I  sing,  and  I,  in  him : 
Bat  he,  nor  /  feel  more. — Young. 

Lorenzo,  to  recriminate  is  just: 
Fondness  for  fame  is  avarice  of  air. — Id. 

Wrong  he  sustains  with  temper,  looks  on  heaven. 
Nor  stoops  to  think  his  injurer  his  foe. — Id. 

Amid  the  forms  which  this  full  world  presents 
Like  rivals  to  his  choice,  what  human  breast 
E'er  doubts,  before  the  transient  and  minute, 
To  prize  the  vast,  the  stable,  and  sublime  ? — AJcenside. 

Now  fears  in  dire  vicissitude  invade ; 

The  rustling  brake  alarms,  and  quiv'ring  shade : 

Nor  light  nor  darkness  brings  his  pain  relief; 

One  shows  the  plunder,  and  one  hides  the  thief. — Johnson. 

So  reads  he  nature,  whom  the  lamp  of  truth 
Illuminates : — thy  lamp,  mysterious  Word ! 
Which  whoso  sees,  no  longer  wanders  lost, 
With  intellects  bemaz'd  in  endless  doubt, 
But  runs  the  road  of  wisdom. — Cowper. 

From  education  as  the  leading  cause, 
The  public  character  its  colour  draws ; 
Hence  the  prevailing  manners  take  their  cast, 
Extravagant  or  sober,  loose  or  chaste. — Id. 

Mercy  to  him  that  shows  it,  is  the  rule 

And  righteous  limitation  of  its  act, 

By  which  heaven  moves  in  pard'ning  guilty  man. — Id. 

Yet  O  the  thought,  that  thou  art  safe,  and  he! 
That  thought  is  joy,  arrive  what  may  to  me. — Id. 


202  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

LESSON  IV.— POETRY. 

Then  palaces  and  lofty  domes  arose ; 

These  for  devotion,  and  for  pleasure  those. — Blackmore. 

And  O,  poor  hapless  nightingale,  thought  I, 

How  sweet  thou  singst,  how  near  the  deadly  snare  ! — Milton. 

Give  every  man  thine  ear,  but  few  thy  voice  ; 

Take  each  man's  censure,  but  reserve  thy  judgement. 

Neither  a  borrower  nor  a  lender  be  ; 

For  loan  oft  loseth  both  itself  and  friend. — Shakspeare. 

Sorrow  breaks  reasons,  and  reposing  hours ; 

Makes  the  night  morning,  and  the  noon-tide  night. — Id. 

Nor  then  the  solemn  nightingale  ceased  warbling. — Milton. 

The  bhss'd  to-day  is  as  completely  so, 

As  who  began  a  thousand  years  ago.— Pope. 

Thus  Virtue  sinks  beneath  unnumber'd  woes, 

When  Passions,  born  her  friends,  revolt  her  foes. — Brown. 

Full  many  a  gem  of  purest  ray  serene 

The  dark  unfathom'd  caves  of  ocean  bear  ; 

Full  many  a  flower  is  born  to  blush  unseen, 

And  waste  its  sweetness  on  the  desert  air. — Gray 

Then  kneeling  down  to  heaven's  eternal  King, 
The  saint,  the  father,  and  the  husband  prays  ; 

Hope  c  springs  exulting  on  triumphant  wing/ 

That  thus  they  all  shall  meet  in  future  days. — Burns. 

These  are  thy  blessings,  Industry !  rough  power  ; 

Whom  labour  still  attends,  and  sweat,  and  pain. — Thomson. 

Sweet  bird !  thy  bow'r  is  ever  green, 

Thy  sky  is  ever  clear ; 
Thou  hast  710  sorrow  in  thy  song, 

No  winter  in  thy  year. — Logan. 

Hark  !  they  whisper ;  angels  say, 

'  Sister  spirit,  come  away  !' 
What  is  this  absorbs  me  quite, 

Steals  my  senses,  shuts  my  sight  ? — Pope. 

LESSON  V.— POETRY. 

Oh  fool !  to  think  God  hates  the  worthy  mind, 
The  lover  and  the  love  of  human  kind, 
Whose  life  is  healthful,  and  whose  conscience  clear, 
Because  he  wants  a  thousand  pounds  a  year. — Pope. 


SYNTAX. QUESTIONS.  203 


He  can't  flatter,  he  ! 


An  honest  mind  and  plain  ;  he  must  speak  truth  : 
An  they  will  hear  it,  so  ;  if  not,  he's  plain. — Shak 

What  !  canst  thoit  not  forbear  me  half  an  hour  ? 
Then  gel  thee  gone,  and  dig  my  grave  thyself. — Id. 

Remote  from  man,  with  God  he  pass'd  his  days, 
Prayer  all  his  business,  all  his  pleasure  praise. — ParndL 

Nature  in  silence  bid  the  world  repose ; 
When  near  the  road  a  stately  palace  rose. — Id. 

It  chanc'd  the  noble  master  of  the  dome 

Still  made  his  house  the  wandering  stranger's  home, — Id. 

If  still  she  loves  thee,  hoard  that  gem  ; 
'Tis  worth  thy  vanish'd  diadem. — Byron. 

He  calls  for  Famine,  and  the  meagre  fiend 
Blows  mildew  from-between  his  shrivell'd  lips, 
And  taints  the  golden  ear. — Cowper. 

What-ho  !  thou  genius  of  the  clime  what-ho  ! 

Liest  thou  asleep  beneath  these  hills  of  snow  ? — Dryden. 

Oh  !  what  a  tangled  web  we  weave, 
When  first  we  practise  to  deceive  ! — Scott. 

Here  he  had  need 

All  circumspection  ;  and  we  now,  no  less, 
Choice  in  our  suffrage ;  for  on  whom  we  send, 
The  weight  of  all,  and  our  last  hope  relies. — MUton. 

Who  wickedly  is  wise,  or  madly  brave, 

Is  but  the  more  a  fool,  the  more  a  knave. — Pope. 

To  copy  beauties,  forfeits  all  pretence 

To  fame  ; — to  copy  faults,  is  want  of  sense. — Churchill. 

Whose  freedom  is  by  sufPrance,  and  at  will 
Of  a  superior,  he  is  never  free. — Cowper. 

A  field  of  corn,  a  fountain,  and  a  wood, 

Is  all  Hie  wealth  by  nature  understood. — Cowley. 


QUESTIONS  ON  SYNTAX. 

LESSON   I.-— DEFINITIONS. 

Of  what  does  syntax  treat  1 

What  is  the  relation  of  words  ? — the  aereemfnt  of  words  1 — the  government 
of  words  1 — the  arrangement  of  worcta  7 


204  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

What  is  a  sentence  ? 

What  are  the  principal  parts  of  a  sentence  1 

What  are  the  other  parts  called  1 

How  many  kinds  of  sentences  are  there! 

What  is  a  simple  sentence  1     What  is  a  compound  sentence  ? 

What  is  a  clause?     What  is  a  phrase  ? 

What  words  must  be  supplied  in  parsing  1 

LESSON   II. — THE    RULES. 

How  many  special  rules  of  syntax  are  there  ? 

Of  what  do  the  first  eighteen  rules  of  syntax  treat  1 

Of  what  do  the  last  eight  rules  principally  treat? 

Where  is  the  arrangement  of  words  treated  of? 

To  what  do  articles  relate  1 

What  case  is  employed  as  the  subject  of  a  verb  1 

What  agreement  is  required  between  words  in  apposition  ? 

To  what  do  adjectives  relate  7 

How  does  a  pronoun  agree  with  its  antecedent  ? 

How  does  a  pronoun  agree  with  a  collective  noun  ? 

How  does  a  pronoun  agree  with  joint  antecedents? 

How  does  a  pronoun  agree  with  disjunct  antecedents? 

LESSON   III. — THE    RULES. 

How  does  a  verb  agree  with  its  subject  or  nominative? 
How  does  a  verb  agree  with  a  collective  noun  ? 
How  does  a  verb  agree  with  joint  nominatives? 
How  does  a  verb  agree  with  disjunct  nominatives? 
What  agreement  is  required,  when  verbs  are  connected  ? 
How  are  participles  employed  ? 
To  what  do  adverbs  relate  ? 
What  is  the  use  of  conjunctions? 
What  is  the  use  of  prepositions  ? 
To  what  do  interjections  reiate  ? 

LESSON   IV. — THE    RULES. 

By  what  is  the  possessive  case  governed  ? 

What  case  do  active-transitive  verbs  govern  ? 

WThat  case  is  put  after  other  verbs  ? 

What  case  do  prepositions  govern  ? 

What  governs  the  infinitive  mood  ? 

What  verbs  take  the  infinitive  after  them  without  the  preposition  to  ? 

When  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  put  absolute? 

When  shouid  the  subjunctive  mood  be  employed  ? 

LESSON   V. — THE    RULES. 

What  are  the  several  titles,  or  subjects,  of  the  twenty-six  rules  ? 

What  says  Rule  1st?— Rule  2d  ?— Rule  3d  ?— Rule  4th  ?— Rule  5th  I—- 
Rule 6th?— Rule  7th?— Rule  8th?— Rule  9th  ?— Rule  10th?— Rule  11th  ? 
—Rule  12th? -Rule  13th?— Rule  14th?— Rule  15th?— Rule  16th  ?— 
Rule  17th?— Rule  18th?— Rule  19th?— Rule  20th  ?— Rule  21st  ?— Rule 

22d  ?-    Rule  23d  ?— Rule  24th  ? —Rule  25th  ?— Rule  26th  ? 

• 

LESSON   VI. — PARSING.  4 

What  has  the  sense  to  do  with  syntax,  or  with  parsing  1 
What  is  required  of  the  pupil  in  syntactical  parsing? 


SYNTAX. — EXERCISES.  205 

How  is  the  following  sentence  parsed  1  "  This  enterprise,  alas !  will  never 
compensate  us  for  the  trouble  and  expense  with  which  it  has  been  at- 
tended." 

[Now  parse,  in  like  manner,  and  with  no  needless  deviations  from  the 
form,  the  thirty-one  lessons  of  the  Seventh  Chapter ;  or,  (if  the  teacher  pre- 
fer it,)  first  take  the  Italic  words  only,  and  afterwards  explain  all  tfie  ward*  a» 
they  come  in  succession.] 

LESSON   VII. — EXCEPTIONS. 

How  many  and  what  exceptions  are  there  to  Rule  1st7? — to  Rule  2d  1 — to 
Rule  3d  1 — to  Rule  4th  1— to  Rule  5th  1— to  Rule  6th  1— to  Rule  7th  ?— 
to  Rule  8th  1— to  Rule  9th  1— to  Rule  10th  7— to  Rule  llth '?— to  Rule 
12th  1— to  Rule  13th  1— to  Rule  14th  1— to  Rule  15th  1— to  Rule  10th  ?— 
to  Rule  17th  1— to  Rule  18th  1 

[Now  explain  and  correct  orally  all  the  false  syntax  placed  under  the 
Rules  and  Notes ;  learning  for  each  lesson  about  thirty  examples,  and  reci- 
ting them  without  recurrence  to  the  Key  during  the  exercise.] 

LESSON   VIII. — OBSERVATIONS. 

What  is  observed  of  the  placing  of  Articles  1 — Nominatives  ? — Words  in  Ap- 
position 1 — Adjectives  1  —  Pronouns  1 — Verbs  1  —  Participles  1 — Adverbs  1 
— Conjunctions  7 — Propositions  1 — Interjections  1  — Possessives  1 — Objec- 
tives ? — Same  Cases  1 — Infinitives  1 

Under  how  many  and  what  circumstances  are  nouns  put  absolute? 

[Now  read  all  the  other  observations,  so  as  to  be  able  to  refer  to  them  if 

necessary ;  and  then  parse  the  five  lessons  of  the  Eighth  Chapter.] 

EXERCISES    Itf    SYNTAX. 

f^f  [When  the  pupil  has  been  sufficiently  exercised  in  syntactical  par- 
sing,  and  has  corrected  orally,  according  to  the  formules  given,  all  the  ex- 
amples of  false  syntax  designed  for  oral  exercises ;  he  should  write  out  the 
following  exercises,  correcting  them  according  to  the  principles  of  syntax 
given  in  the  rules  and  notes.] 

EXERCISE  I— ARTICLES. 

Christianity  claims  an  heavenly  origin. 
An  useless  excellence  is  a  contradiction  in  terms. 
It  would  have  an  happy  influence  on  genius. 
Part  not  with  a  old  friend  for  an  new  acquaintance. 
Justice  eyes  not  the  parties,  but  cause. 
I  found  in  him  a  friend,  and  not  mere  promiser. 
These  fathers  lived  m  the  fourth  and  following  century. 
The  rich  and  poor  are  seldom  intimate. 
The  Bible  contains  the  Old  and  the  New  Testaments. 
An  elegant  and  florid  style  are  very  different. 
The  humility  is  a  deep  which  no  man  can  fathom. 
The  true  cheerfulness  is  the  privilege  of  the  innocence. 
A  devotion  is  a  refuge  from  a  human  frailty. 
The.  duplicity  and  the  friendship  are  not  congenial. 
The  familiarity  with  the  vicious  fosters  a  rice. 
A.  fcreed  happiness  is  a  solecism  in  the  terms, 

18 


'206  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

The  favourites  are  generally  the  objects  of  the  envy. 

An  equivocation  is  a  mean  and  a  sneaking  vice. 

He  sent  an  other  and  rather  a  more  modest  letter. 

The  flatterers  are  put  to  a  flight  by  an  adversity. 

An  obstinacy  is  unfavourable  to  the  discovery  of  the  truth, 

The  conic  sections  are  a  part  of  the  geometrv. 

What  is  the  proper  meaning  of  a  Landgrave '/ 

Sensuality  is  one  kind  of  pleasure,  such  an  one  as  it  is. 

What  sovereign  assumes  the  title  of  an  Autocrat  ? 

Believe  me,  the  man  is  less  a  fool  than  a  knave. 

He  is  a  much  deeper  deceiver  than  a  sufferer. 

Laziness  is  a  greater  thief  than  pickpocket. 

Heroes  who  then  flourished,  have  passed  away. 

Time  which  is  to  come,  may  not  come  to  us. 

EXERCISE  IL— NOUNa 

A  friend  should  bear  a  friends  infirmities7. 

Deviations'  from  rectitude  are  approaches  to  sin. 

Crafty  person's  often  entrap  themselves. 

Mens  mind's  seem  to  be  somewhat  variously  constituted. 

The  great  doctors,  adept's  in  science,  often  disagree. 

The  two  men  were  ready  to  cut  each  others'  throats. 

We  went  at  the  rate  of  five  mile  an  hour, 

His  income  is  a  thousand  pound  a  year. 

Five  bushel  of  wheat  are  worth  forty  shilling. 

Redding  is  one  mean  of  acquiring  knowledge. 

The  well  is  at  least  ten  fathom  deep. 

I  shdl  be  a  hundred  mile  off  by  that  time. 

Wisdom  and  Folly's  votaries  travel  diffeient  roads. 

The  true  philanthropist  is  all  mankind's  friend. 

He  desires  the  whole  human  race's  happiness. 

The  idler  and  the  spendthrift's  faults  are  similar. 

1  good  mans  words  inflict  no  injury. 

;3e  not  generous  at  other  peoples  expense. 

Prue  hope  is  swift,  and  flies  with  swallows  wings. 

Lnfes  current  holds  its  course,  and  never  returns. 

hiany  assume  Virtues  livery,  who  shun  her  service. 

I  left  the  parcel  at  Richardson's,  the  bookseller's. 

The  books  are  for  sale  at  Samuel  Wood's  &  Sons' 

Where  shall  we  find  friendship  like  David's  and  Jonathan's  ? 

Acquiesce  for  peace's  and  harmony's  sake. 

The  moons  disk  often  appears  larger  than  the  sun. 

Con^Jit  Sheridan,  Johnson,  and  Walker's  Dictionary. 

Such  was  my  uncle's  agent's  wife's  economy. 

A  frugal  plenty  marks  the  wise  mans  board. 

This  mob,  for  honesty  sake,  broke  open  all  the  prisons. 


SYNTAX. EXERCISES.  207 

Our  sacks  shall  be  a  mean  to  sack  the  city. 
Such  vvas  the  economy  of  the  wife  of  the  agent  of  my  uncle. 
These  emmet's,  how  little  they  are  in  our  eyes ! 
Childrens  minds  may  be  easily  overloaded. 

EXERCISE  III.— ADJECTIVES. 

A  palmistry  at  which  this  vermin  are  very  dexterous. 

These  kind  of  knaves  I  know. — Shakspeare. 

Vanity  has  more  subjects  than  any  of  the  passions. 

The  vain  are  delighted  with  fashionable  and  new  dressei. 

So  highly  did  they  esteem  this  goods. 

Washington  has  been  honoured  more  than  any  American. 

Which  is  the  loftier  of  the  Asiatic  mountains  ? 

This  ashes  they  were  very  careful  to  preserve. 

Is  not  she  the  younger  of  the  three  sisters  ? 

Could  not  some  less  nobler  plunder  satisfy  thee? 

I  can  assign  a  more  satisfactory  and  stronger  reason. 

Peter  was  older  than  any  of  the  twelve  apostles, 

Peace  of  mind  is  easier  lost  than  gained. 

Of  this  victuals  he  was  always  very  fond. 

Man  has  more  wants  than  any  animal. 

Of  all  other  practical  rules  this  is  the  most  complex. 

Is  not  French  more  fashionable  than  any  language  ? 

Vice  never  leads  to  old  honoured  age. 

Cloths  of  a  more  inferior  quality  are  more  salable. 

This  is  found  in  no  book  published  previous  to  mine 

He  turned  away  with  the  most  utmost  contempt. 

Time  glides  swift  and  imperceptible  away. 

Of  their  more  ulterior  measures  I  know  nothing. 

My  three  last  letters  were  never  answered. 

Fortune  may  frown  on  the  most  superior  genius. 

It  becomes  a  gentleman  to  speak  correct. 

The  most  loftiest  mountain  is  Mont  Blanc. 

[f  a  man  acts  foolish,  is  he  to  be  esteemed  wise  ? 

Drop  your  acquaintance  with  them  bad  boys. 

They  sat  silently  and  motionless  an  hour  and  a  half. 

duiet  minds,  like  smooth  water,  reflect  clear. 

True  faith,  true  policy,  united  ran  ; 

This  was  but  love  of  God,  and  that  of  man. 

EXERCISE  IV.--PRONOUNS 

Him  that  presumes  much,  has  much  to  fear. 
They  best  can  bear  reproof,  whom  merit  praise. 
A  few  pupils,  older  than  me,  excited  my  emulation. 
Every  man  will  find  themselves  in  the  state  of  Adam. 
None  are  mcre  rich  than  them  who  are  content. 


208  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Scotland  and  thee  did  in  each  other  live. 

These  trifles  they  do  not  deserve  our  attention. 

Truth  is  ever  to  be  preferred  for  its  own  sake. 

Thou  art  afraid — else,  what  ails  you  ? 

It  is  not  Lemuel,  but  God,  whom  you  have  offended. 

All  things  which  have  life,  aspire  to  God. 

So  great  was  the  multitude  who  followed  him. 

He  which  would  advance,  should  not  look  backwards. 

It  was  Sir  Billy- -who  is  an  other  name  for  a  fop. 

I  take  up  the  arguments  in  the  order  they  stand. 

There  is  nothing,  with  respect  to  me,  and  such  as  me. 

He  that  is  bribed,  the  people  will  abhor. 

The  day  when  the  accident  happened,  is  not  recorded. 

We  know  not  who  to  trust ;  them  who  seem  fair,  are  falsa. 

The  reason  I  told  it,  was  this ;  thee  was  in  danger. 

I  did  not  know  the  precise  time  when  it  occurred. 

Here  he  answers  the  question,  who  asks  it. 

Who  who  beheld  the  outrage,  could  remain  inactive? 

This  was  the  prison  where  we  were  confined. 

I  could  not  believe  but  what  it  was  a  reality. 

It  was  the  boys,  and  not  the  dog,  which  broke  the  basia 

An  unprincipled  junto  is  not  nice  about  their  means. 

The  people  forced  its  way,  and  demanded  its  rights. 

Avoid  lightness  and  frivolity  :  it  is  allied  to  folly. 

Either  wealth  or  power  may  ruin  their  possessor. 

It  was  Joseph,  him  whom  Pharaoh  promoted. 

Origen's  mother  hid  his  clothes,  to  prevent  him  going. 

Him  that  withholdeth  corn,  the  people  shall  curse  him. 

.tie  that  withholdeth  corn  the  people  shall  curse. 

I  have  always  thought  ye  honest  till  noAV. 

Me  being  but  a  boy,  they  took  no  notice  of  me. 

They  that  receive  me,  1  will  richly  reward. 

Had  it  been  them,  they  would  have  stopped. 

Vain  pomp  and  glory  of  this  world,  I  hate  ye. 

It  was  not  me,  that  gave  you  that  answer. 

Between  you  and  I,  he  is  a  greater  thief  than  author. 

Any  dunce  can  copy  what  you  or  me  shall  write, 

Ycu  seem  to  forget  who  you  are  talking  to. 

Thee  being  a  stranger,  the  child  was  afraid. 

This  was  the  most  remarkable  event  which  occurred* 

Happy  are  them  whose  pleasure  is  their  duty. 

EXERCISE  V.— VERBS. 

Where  was  you  standing  during  the  transaction  ? 
Was  you  there  when  the  pistol  was  fired? 
Thou  sees  how  1'ttle  difference  there  are. 


SYNTAX. EXERCISES. 


209 


If  he  have  failed,  it  was  not  through  my  neglect. 

Patience  and  diligence,  like  faith,  removes  mountains. 

There  was  many  reasons  for  not  disturbing  my  repose. 

The  train  of  brass  artillery  and  other  ordnance,  are  immense. 

Art  thou  the  man  that  earnest  from  Judah? 

What  eye  those  long,  long  labyrinths  dare  explore  ? 

Magnus  arid  his  friends  was  barbarously  treated. 

The  propriety  of  these  restrictions,  are  unquestionable. 

And  I  am  one  that  believe  the  doctrine. 

Thou  wast  he  that  leddest  out  and  broughtest  in  Israel. 

Beauty  without  virtue  generally  prove  a  snare. 

If  thou  means  to  advance, "eye  those  before  thee. 

A  qualification  for  high  offices,  come  not  of  indolence. 

The  desires  of  right  reason  is  bounded  by  competency. 

Useless  studies  is  nothing  but  a  busy  idleness. 

Is  virtue,  then,  and  piety  the  same  ? 

So  awful  an  admonition  was  these  miraculous  words. 

If  the  great  body  of  the  people  thinks  otherwise. 

A  committee  are  a  body  that  have  only  a  delegated  power 

In  peace  of  mind  consists  our  strength  and  happiness. 

There  is  no  slander,  where  love  and  unity  is  maintained. 

His  character,  as  well  as  his  doctrines,  were  assailed. 

Proof,  and  not  assertion,  are  what  are  required. 

Right  reason  and  truth  is  always  in  unison. 

No  pains  nor  cost  were  spared  to  make  it  grand. 

Ignorance  stupifies,  and  is  the  source  of  many  crimes. 

Then  wanders  forth  the  sons 

Of  Belial,  flown  with  insolence  and  wine. 

What  you  must  chiefly  rely  on,  is  the  attested  facts. 
No  axe  or  hammer  have  ever  awakened  an  echo  here. 
Did  not  she  send,  and  gave  you  this  information  ? 
Their  honours  are  departing  and  come  to  an  end. 
Neither  wit,  nor  taste,  nor  learning,  appear  in  it. 
Caligula  sat  himself  up  for  a  deity. 
A  tortoise  requested  the  eagle  to  learn  him  to  fly. 
4  O,  that  it  was  always  spring !'  said  little  Robert. 
I  at  first  intended  to  have  arranged  it  in  a  new  form. 
The  gaoler  supposed  that  the  prisoners  had  been  fled. 
Peter  saw  a  vessel,  as  it  had  been  a  great  sheet. 
Peace  and  esteem  is  all  that  age  can  hope. 

Alas  !  no  wife  or  mother's  care 
For  him  the  milk  or  corn  prepare. 

Thou  bark  that  sails  with  man  1 
Haste,  haste  to  cleave  the  seas. 
18* 


210  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE  VI.— PARTICIPLES. 

What  dost  thou  mean  by  shaking-  of  thy  head  ? 

A.  good  end  warrants  not  using  bad  means. 

Be  cautious  in  forming  of  connexions. 

The  worshiping  the  two  calves  was  stiJl  kept  up. 

In  reading  of  his  lecture,  he  was  much  embarrassed. 

This  devoting  ourselves  to  God,  must  be  habitual. 

Their  estimating  the  prize  too  highly,  was  evident. 

He  declared  the  project  to  be  no  less  than  a  tempting  God. 

Every  deviation  from  virtue  is  approaching  to  vice. 

It  is  extremely  foolish  boasting  of  immoral  achievements. 

It  wa.s  the  refusing  all  communion  with  paganism. 

Our  deepest  knowledge  is  knowing  ourselves. 

He  wilfully  neglects  the  obtaining  unspeakable  good. 

Retaliating  injuries  is  multiplying  offences. 

These  things  are  certain  :  there  is  no  denying  facts. 

Publicly  vindicating  error  is  openly  adopting  it. 

On  his  father  asking  him  who  it  was,  he  answered,  *  L* 

Thus  shall  we  escape  being  defeated  and  ruined. 

Being  unjustly  liberal  is  ostentatious  pride. 

Wisdom  teaches  justly  appreciating  of  all  things. 

The  procuring  these  benefits,  was  a  gratuitous  act. 

Doing  good,  disinterested  good,  is  not  our  trade. 

Such  a  renouncing  the  world  is  a  pernicious  delusion. 

Freely  indulging  the  appetite  impairs  the  intellect 

The  Acts  mention  Paul  preaching  of  Christ  at  Damascus. 

The  Acts  mention  Paul's  preaching  Christ  at  Damascus. 

The  Acts  mention  Paul  preaching  Christ  at  Damascus. 

Constantly  beholding  objects  prevents  our  admiring  them. 

We  purpose  taking  that  route  when  we  go. 

What  was  the  cause  of  the  young  woman  fainting  ? 

I  perceived  somebody's  creeping  through  the  fence. 

J  was  aware  of  them  intending  to  arrest  me. 

We  saw  some  mischievous  boys'  worrying  of  a  cat. 

To  pursue  fashion,  is  chasing  a  bird  on  the  wing. 

Being  very  positive,  is  no  real  proof  of  a  stable  mind. 

By  establishing  good  laws,  our  peace  is  secured. 

Distinctness  is  important  in  delivering  orations. 

He  guarantied  the  permission  we  demanded  being  granted. 

For  the  easier  reading  the  numbers  in  the  table. 

Recovering  the  first  surprise,  however,  we  entered  boldly. 

EXERCISE  VII.— ADVERBS,  <kc. 

Respect  is  lost  often  by  the  means  used  to  obtain  it 
Such  were  the  views  of  the  then  ministry. 
Raillery  must  be  very  nice  to  not  offend. 


SYNTAX. EXERCISES.  211 

Ye  know  how  that  it  is  an  unlawful  thing. 

From  hence  I  infer  that  they  were  going  there. 

Q,uaint  sayings  are  long  remembered  often. 

I  cannot  tell  you  whether  this  is  the  fact  or  no. 

Valleys  are  more  fertile  generally  than  mountains. 

A  qualification  of  usefulness  is  acquired  with  study. 

Frequent  transgression  makes  men  slaves  of  sin. 

Let  nothing  induce  you  ever  to  utter  a  falsehood. 

The  idle  are.  of  necessary  consequence,  ignorant. 

The  wind  came  about  so  as  we  could  make  no  way. 

Zealots  seidom  are  distinguished  by  charity. 

Study  is  as  necessary  and  even  more  so  than  instruction. 

I  never  have,  and  never  shall  be  compensated. 

Humility  neither  seeks  the  first  place  or  the  last  word. 

He  has  never  told  me  nothing  more  of  the  matter. 

These  men  ranked  highly  among  the  nobility. 

Their  bodies  are  so  solid  and  hard,  as  you  need  not  fear. 

Of  her  brother's  political  life  previously  to  this  event 

Attainments  made  easily,  are  not  of  much  value  often. 

He  has  no  other  merit  but  that  of  a  compiler. 

Venus  appears  uncommonly  brightly  to-night. 

Men  cannot  be  forced  neither  into  or  out-of  true  faith. 

To  this  man  we  may  commit  safely  our  cause. 

One  crime  cannot  be  a  proper  remedy  to  another. 

Venus  is  not  quite  as  large  as  the  Earth. 

It  is  thinking  makes  what  we  read  our  own. 

Q,uagmires  have  smooth  surfaces  commonly. 

He  was  so  much  offended,  as  he  would  not  speak  to  ma 

I  have  put  my  words  in  thy  mouth. 

How  wilt  thou  put  thy  trust  on  Egypt  for  chariots? 

EXERCISE  VIII.— PROMISCUOUS. 

In  his  fathers  reign,  they  were  connected  and  joined. 

What  is  the  Earth  and  its  dimensions? 

He  is  a  great  deal  heavier  man  than  I. 

The  citizens  were  never  denied  the  privilege. 

Thankful  to  Heaven  that  thou  wert  left  behind. 

I  have  met  with  few  who  understood  men  equal  to  him, 

He  was  then  recently  returned  from  the  east  victorious. 

He  hoped  that  money  should  have  been  given  him. 

Laws  may,  and  frequently  are  made  against  drunkenness 

He  appeared  in  an  human  shape. 

5  do  not  attempt  explaining  the  mysteries  of  religion. 

Ere  matter,  time,  or  place  were  known. 

Thou  sway'dst  these  spacious  realms  alone. 
One  of  the  wisest  persons  that  hath  been  among  them. 


212  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

What  is  it  else  but  to  reject  all  authority  ? 

They  advocate  distinctions  unworthy  any  free  state. 

It  would  not,  and  ought  not,  be  felt. 

Them  who  saw  the  disaster,  were  greatly  alarmed. 

He  knew  none  fitter  to  be  their  judge  but  himself. 

Record  the  names  of  every  one  present. 

We  doubt  not  but  we  will  satisfy  the  impartial. 

But  time  and  chance  happeneth  to  them  all. 

You  was  in  hopes  to  have  succeeded  to  the  inheritance. 

To  make  light  of  a  small  fault,  are  to  commit  a  greater 

Judge  not  before  hearing  of  the  cause. 

Clear  articulation  is  requisite  in  publicly  speaking. 

God  is  the  avenger  of  all  breach  of  faith  and  injustice. 

I  had  a  letter  began,  and  nearly  half  wrote. 

It  is  better  being  suspected  than  being  guilty 

Declare  the  past  and  present  state  of  things. 

To  insult  the  afflicted  are  impious  and  barbarous. 

Goodness,  and  not  greatness,  lead  to  happiness. 

It  is  pride  who  whispers,  '  What  will  they  think  of  mr  f 

In  judging  of  others,  charity  should  be  exercised. 

Zanies  are  willing  to  befool,  to  please  fools. 

Questions  are  easier  proposed  than  answered  rightly, 

He  forms  his  schemes  the  flood  of  vice  to  stem, 
But  preaching  Jesus  is  not  one  of  them.  —  /. 


EXERCISE  IX.—  PROMISCUOUS. 

The  property  of  the  rebels  were  confisce.tcd. 

He  was  extreme  covetous  in  all  his  dealings. 

There  were  no  less  than  thirty  islands. 

The  plot  was  the  easier  detected. 

Of  all  the  books  mine  has  the  fewer  blots. 

Who  does  .the  house  belong  to  ? 

Is  this  the  person  whom  you  say  was  present? 

Knowledge  is  only  to  be  acquired  by  application. 

Policy  often  prevails  upon  force. 

These  men  were  seen  enter  the  house  in  the  ni^iil 

These  works  are  Cicero,  the  most  eloquent  of  men's. 

Thomas  has  bought  a  bay  large  horse. 

Your  gold  and  silver  is  cankered. 

Now  abideth  faith,  hope,  and  charity. 

And,  him  destroyed,  all  this  will  follow. 

There  is  no  need  for  your  assistance. 

To  whom  our  fathers  would  not  obey. 

Where  can  we  find  such  an  one  as  this  ? 

They  sat  out  early  on  their  journey, 

Philosophers  have  often  mistook  the  source  of  happiness. 


SYNTAX. EXERCISES.  213 

The  books  are  as  old,  and  perhaps  older,  than  tradition. 

This  chapter  is  divided  in  sections. 

I  shall  treat  you  as  I  have  them. 

A  prophet  mightier  than  him. 

Neither  he  or  his  brother  is  capable  of  it. 

Richelieu  profited  of  every  circumstance. 

What  was  the  cause  of  the  girl  screaming  ? 

Let  him  and  I  have  half  of  them. 

I  wrote  to,  and  cautioned  the  captain  against  it 

Nothing  is  more  lovelier  than  virtue. 

He  that  is  diligent  you  should  commend. 

They  ride  faster  than  us. 

Which  of  them  grammars  do  you  like  best  ? 

Neither  of  these  are  the  meaning  intended. 

Did  you  understand  who  I  was  speaking  of? 

Whosoever  of  you  will  be  chiefest,  shall  be  servant  of  all. 

Remember  what  thou  wert,  and  be  humble. 

Was  I  deceived  ?  or  did  a  sable  cloud 

Turn  forth  her  silver  lining  on  the  night  ? — MUton. 

EXERCISE  X.— PROMISCUOUS. 

Changed  to  a  worser  shape  thou  canst  not  be. 

For  him  through  hostile  camps  I  bend  my  way, 
For  him  thus  prostrate  at  thy  feet  I  lay. — Pope.  ' 

Thus  oft  by  mariners  are  shown 

Earl  Godwin's  castles  overflown. — Swift. 

No  civil  broils  have,  since  his  death,  arose. 

Nor  thou,  that  flings  me  floundering  from  thy  back. 

Who  should  I  see  but  the  doctor ! 

That  which  once  was  thee. 

To  wish  him  wrestle  with  affection. 

So  much  she  fears  for  William's  life, 

That  Mary's  fate  she  dare  not  mourn. — Prior. 

Phalaris,  who  was  so  much  older  than  her. 

They  would  have  given  him  such  satisfaction  in  other  parties 

lars,  as  a  full  and  happy  peace  must  have  ensued. 
The  woman  which  we  saw,  is  very  amiable. 
The  three  first  classes  have  read. 
An  union  in  that  which  is  permanent. 
Among  every  class  of  people  self-interest  prevails. 
Such  conduct  is  a  disgrace  of  their  profession. 
His  education  has  been  neglected  much. 
There  is  no  other  bridge  but  the  one  we  saw. 
He  went  and  laid  down  to  sleep. 


214  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Whom  do  men  say  that  I  am  ? 

Take  to  you  handfuls  of  ashes  of  the  furnace,  and  let  Moses 
sprinkle  it  towards  the  heaven  in  the  sight  of  Pharaoh. 

In  eulogizing  of  the  dead,  he  slandered  the  living. 

If  a  dog  both  give  the  first  turn  and  the  last,  he  shall  win. 

Neither  the  virtuous  or  the  vicious  are  exempt  from  trials 

He  spoke  as  if  he  was  in  a  passion. 

Let  him  take  heed  lest  he  fails. 

We  have  all  swerved  out-of  the  path  of  duty. 

I  cannot  agree  with  him  neither. 

He  both  wrote  sermons  and  plays. 

If  a  man  say,  <  I  love  God,'  and  hateth  his  brother,  he  is  a  liar. 

He  has  long  ago  forsaken  that  party. 

It  was  proved  to  be  her  that  opened  the  letter. 

Is  not  this  the  same  man  whom  we  met  before  ? 

I  forego  my  claim  for  peace's  sake. 

For  thou  art  a  girl  as  much  brighter  than  her, 
As  she  was  a  poet  sublimer  than  me. — Prior. 

EXERCISE  XI.— PROMISCUOUS. 

There  remains  two  points  to  be  settled. 

I  could  not  avoid  frequently  using  it. 

The  Athenians  were  naturally  obliging  and  agreeable ;  they 
were  cheerful  among  each  other,  and  humane  to  their  infe- 
riors.— Goldsmith. 

I  hope  it  is  not  me  thou  art  displeased  with. 

I  never  before  saw  such  large  trees. 

My  paper  is  Ulysses  his  bow,  in  which  every  man  ol  wit  and 
learning  may  try  his  strength. — Addison. 

7Twas  thee,  whom  once  Stagyra's  grove 

Oft  with  her  sage  allur'd  to  rove. — Scott  of  Amwell. 

I  could  not  observe  by  what  gradations  other  men  proceeded 
in  their  acquainting  themselves  with  truth. — Locke. 

1  will  show  you  the  way  how  it  is  done. 

Imprinting,  if  it  signify  any  thing,  is  nothing  else  but  the  ma 
king  certain  truths  to  be  perceived. — Locke. 

This  arose  from  the  young  man  associating  with  bad  people. 

Him  that  never  thinks,  never  can  be  wise. 

It  was  John's  the  Baptist  head  that  was  cut  off 

The  Jews  are  Abraham's,  Isaac's,  and  Jacob's  posterity. 

Two  architects  were  once  candidates  for  the  building  a  certain 
temple  at  Athens. 

This  treatise  is  extreme  elaborate. 

Them  descending,  the  ladder  fell. 

The  scaling  ladder  of  sugared  words  are  set  against  them. 


SYNTAX. EXERCISES.  $  1 3 

One  or  both  was  there. 

What  sort  of  an  animal  is  that  ? 

These  things  should  be  never  separated. 

His  excuse  was  admitted  of  by  his  master. 

It  is  not  me  that  he  is  engaged  with. 

I  intended  to  have  rewarded  him  according  to  his  merits* 

They  would  become  sooner  proficients  in  Latin. 

There  is  many  different  opinions  concerning  it. 

There  are  many  in  town  richer  than  her. 

Let  you  and  I  be  as  little  at  variance  as  possible. 

A  coalman,  by  waking  of  one  of  these  gentlemen,  saved  him 

from  ten  years  imprisonment. 
If  a  man's  temper  was  at  his  own  disposal,  he  would  not  choose 

to  be  of  either  of  these  parties. 

The  birds  their  notes  renew,  and  bleating  herds 
Attest  their  joy,  that  hill  and  valley  rings. — Mitton. 

EXERCISE  XIL— PROMISCUOUS. 

But  we  of  the  nations  beg  leave  to  differ  with  them. 
This  is  so  easy  and  trivial,  as  it  is  a  shame  to  mention  it. 
You  was  once  quite  blind ;  you  neither  saw  your  disease  or 
your  remedy. 

Fluttering  his  pennons  vain,  plumb  down  he  drops 
Ten  thousand  fathom  deep. — Milton. 

The  properties  of  the  mirror  depends  on  reflected  light 

Was  you  present  at  the  last  meeting  ? 

Hence  has  arisen  much  stiffness  and  affectation. 

The  nation  are  powerful  both  by  sea  and  land. 

Those  set  of  books  was  a  valuable  present. 

The  box  contained  forty  piece  of  muslin. 

She  is  much  the  taller  of  the  three. 

They  are  both  remarkable  tall  men. 

A  mans  manners  may  be  pleasing,  whose  morals  are  bad 

True  politeness  has  its  seat  in  the  heart. 

He  presented  him  a  humble  petition. 

I  do  not  intend  to  turn  a  critic  on  this  occasion. 

At  first  sight  we  took  it  to  be  they. 

The  certificate  was  wrote  on  parchment. 

I  have  often  swam  across  the  river. 

I  have  written  four  long  letters  yesterday. 

I  expected  to  have  seen  you  last  week,  but  I  was  disappointed 

We  are  besat  by  dangers  on  all  sides. 

My  father  and  him  were  very  intimate. 

Unless  he  acts  prudently  he  will  not  succeed. 

It  was  no  sooner  said  but  done. 


216  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Let  neither  partiality  or  prejudice  appear. 

The  obligation  was  ceased  long  before. 

How  exquisitely  is  this  all  performed  in  Greek  ! 

Who,  when  they  came  to  mount  Ephraim,  to  the  house  of 

Micah,  they  lodged  there. 
I  prevailed  with  your  father  to  consent. 
Always  act  as  justice  and  honour  requires. 
Them  that  transgress  the  rules,  will  be  punished. 
With  him  is  wisdom  and  strength. 
My  conductor  answered  that  it  was  him. 

Be  thou,  O  lovely  isle  !  forever  true 

To  him  who  more  than  faithful  was  to  you. — Souihtvick. 

The  joys  of  love,  are  they  not  doubly  thine, 

Ye  poor !  whose  health,  whose  spirits  ne'er  decline  ? — Id, 

EXERCISE  XI1L— PROMISCUOUS. 

Having  once  suffered  the  disgrace,  it  is  felt  no  longer. 

The  meanness  or  the  sin  will  scarce  be  dissuasives. 

Both  temper  and  distemper  consists  of  contraries. 

Which  is  the  cause,  the  writer  or  the  reader's  vanity? 

The  commission  of  a  generalissimo  was  also  given  him. 

The  queen's  kindred  is  styled  gentlefolks. 

They  agree  as  to  the  fact,  but  differ  in  assigning  of  reasons. 

Their  love,  and  their  hatred,  and  their  envy,  is  now  perished 

The  inquiry  is  worthy  the  attention  of  every  scholar. 

Young  twigs  are  easier  bent  than  boughs. 

It  is  not  improbable  but  there  are  more  attractive  powers. 

By  this  means  an  universal  ferment  was  excited. 

Who  were  utterly  unable  to  pronounce  some  letters,  and  others 

very  indistinctly. — Sheridan. 
Ail  vessels  on  board  of  which  any  person  has  been  sick  or 

died,  perform  quarantine. 
Serverus  forbid  his  subjects  to  change  their  religion  for  that  of 

the  Christian  or  Jewish. — Jones's  Ch.  Hist. 
Magnus,  with  four  thousand  of  his  supposed  accomplices,  were 

put  to  death  without  a  trial. — id. 
Art  not  thou  that  Egyptian  which  before  these  days  madest  an 

uproar,  and  leddest  out  into  the  wilderness  four  thousand 

men  that  were  murderers  ? — Acts,  xxiii.  38. 
Attempting  to  deceive  children  into  instruction  of  this  kind,  is 

only  deceiving  ourselves. — Goldsmith. 
There  came  a  woman,  having  an  alabaster  box  of  ointment  of 

spikenard,  very  precious  ;  and  she  brake  the  box  and  poured 

it  on  his  head. — Mark,  xiv.  3. 
My  essays,  of  all  my  other  works,  are  the  most  current. 


SYNTAX. EXERCISE*.  217 

We  would  suggest  the  importance  of  every  member,  individu- 
ally, using  his  influence. 

Thy  sumptuous  buildings,  and  thy  wife's  attire, 
Hath  cost  a  mass  of  public  treasure. — Siiaksptart. 

EXERCISE  XIV.— PROMISCUOUS. 

This  people  who  knoweth  not  the  law,  are  cursed. 
The  people  shall  be  forgiven  their  iniquity. — Bible. 
Having  been  denied  the  favours  which  they  were  promised. 

Rosaline,  this  favour  thou  shalt  wear  ; 

Hold,  take  you  this,  my  sweet,  and  give  me  thine. 

Rely  not  on  any  man's  fidelity,  who  is  unfaithful  to  God. 

The  rules  are  full  as  concise,  and  more  clear  than  before. 

For  they  knew  ail  that  his  father  was  a  Greek.— Acts. 

Thrice  was  Caesar  offered  the  crown. 

For  a  mine  undiscovered,  neither  the  owner  of  the  ground,  or 
any  body  else,  are  ever  the  richer. 

Death  may  be  sudden  to  him,  though  it  comes  by  never  so 
slow  degrees. 

A  brute  or  a  man  are  an  other  thing  when  they  are  alive,  from 
what  they  are  when  dead. — Hale. 

I  have  known  the  having  confessed  inability,  become  the  occa- 
sion of  confirmed  impotence. — Taylor. 

I  am  exceeding  joyful  in  all  our  tribulation. — 2  Cor.  vii.  4. 

If  so  much  power,  wisdom,  goodness,  and  magnificence,  is  dis- 
played in  the  material  creation,  which  is  the  least  considerable 
part  of  the  universe  ;  how  great,  how  wise,  how  good  must 
he  be,  who  made  and  governs  the  whole ! 

A  good  poet  no  sooner  communicates  his  works,  but  it  is  imag- 
ined he  is  a  vain  young  creature,  given  up  to  the  ambition 
of  fame. — Pope. 

This  was  a  tax  upon  himself  for  the  not  executing  the  laws. 

O  my  people,  that  dwellest  in  Zion  !  be  not  afraid. — Bible. 

As  rushing  out-of  doors,  to  be  resolved, 

If  Brutus  so  unkindly  knock'd  or  no. — Shakspeare. 

His  wrath,  which  one  day  will  destroy  ye  both. — MUton. 

I  know  thee  not — nor  ever  saw,  till  now, 
Sight  more  detestable  than  him  and  thee. — Id. 

The  season  when  to  come,  and  when  to  go, 
To  sing,  or  cease  to  sing,  we  never  know. — Pope. 
19 


218  ENGLISH  GRAMMAS, 


PART  IV. 


PROSODY. 

PROSODY  treats  of  punctuation,  utterance,  figures,  and 
versification. 

PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  composition,  by  points, 
or  stops,  for  the  purpose  of  showing  more  clearly  the  sense 
and  relation  of  the  words,  and  of  noting  the  different 
pauses  and  inflections  required  in  reading. 

The  following  are  the  principal  points,  or  marks  ;  the 
Comma  [,],  the  Semicolon  [;],  the  Colon  [:],  the  Period  [.], 
the  Dash  [— ],  the  Note  of  Interrogation  [?],  the  Note  of 
Exclamation  [!],  and  the  Parenthesis  [()]. 

OBS. — The  pauses  that  are  made  in  the  natural  flow  of  speech,  have,  in 
reality,  no  definite  and  invariable  proportions.  Children  are  often  told  to 
pause  at  a  comma  while  they  might  count  one;  at  a  semicolon,  one,  two; 
at  a  colon,  one,  two,  three;  at  a  period,  one,  two,  three,  four.  This  may  be 
of  some  use,  as  teaching  them  to  observe  their  stops  that  they  may 
catch  the  sense;  but  the  standard  itself  is  variable,  ana  so  are  the  times 
which  good  sense  gives  to  the  points.  As  a  final  stop,  the  period  is  im- 
measurable. The  following  general  direction  is  as  good  as  any  that  can 
6e  given. 

The  Comma  denotes  the  shortest  pause ;  the  Semicolon, 
a  pause  double  that  of  the  comma ;  the  Colon,  a  pause 
double  that  of  the  semicolon  ;  and  the  Period,  or  Full  Stop, 
a  pause  double  that  of  the  colon. — The  pauses  required  by 
the  other  marks,  vary  according  to  the  structure  of  the 
sentence,  and  their  place  in  it.  They  may  be  equal  to  any 
of  the  foregoing. 

OF  THE  COMMA. 

The  Comma  is  used  to  separate  those  parts  of  a  sentence, 
which  are  so  nearly  connected  in  sense,  as  to  be  only  one 
degree  removed  from  that  close  connexion  which  admits 
no  point. 

RULE    I. SIMPLE    SENTENCES. 

A  simple  sentence  does  not,  in  general,  admit  the  comma ; 
as,  "  The  weakest  reasoners  are  the  most  positive." 


PROSODY. PUNCTUATION.  219 

Exception.  When  the  nominative  in  a  long  simple  sentence 
is  accompanied  by  inseparable  adjuncts,  a  comma  should  be 
placed  before  the  verb ;  as,  "  The  assemblage  of  these  vast 
bodies,  is  divided  into  different  systems." 

RULE    II. SIMPLE    MEMBERS. 

The  simple  members  of  a  compound  sentence,  whether  sue 
cessive  or  involved,  elliptical  or  complete,  are  generally  divided 
by  the  comma ;  as, 

1.  "He  speaks  eloquently,  and  he  acts  wisely." 

2.  "  The  man,  when  he  saw  this,  departed." 

3.  "  It  may,  and  it  often  does  happen." 

4.  "  That  life  is  long,  which  answers  life's  great  end  " 

5.  "  As  thy  days,  so  shall  thy  strength  be." 

Exception  1.  When  a  relative  immediately  follows  its  an- 
tecedent, and  is  taken  in  a  restrictive  sense,  the  comma  should 
not  be  introduced  before  it ;  as,  "  The  things  which  are  seen, 
are  temporal  j  but  the  things  which  are  not  seen,  are  eternal." — 
2  Cor.  iv.  18. 

Exception  2.  When  the  simple  members  are  short,  and 
closely  connected  by  a  conjunction  or  a  conjunctive  adverb,  tha 
comma  is  generally  omitted  ;  as,  K  Infamy  is  worse  than  death." 
— "  Let  him  tell  me  whether  the  number  of  the  stars  be  even 
or  odd." 

RULE    III. — MORE    THAN   TWO   WORDS. 

When  more  than  two  words  or  terms  are  connected  in  the 
same  construction,  by  conjunctions  expressed  or  understood, 
the  comma  should  be  inserted  after  every  one  of  them  but  the 
last;  and  if  they  are  nominatives  before  a  verb,  the  comma 
should  follow  the  last  also  :  as, 

1.  "  Who,  to  the  enraptur'd  heart,  and  ear,  and  eye, 

Teach  beauty,  virtue,  truth,  and  love,  and  melody." 

2.  "  Ah  !  what  avails     ****** 

All  that  art,  fortune,  enterprise,  can  bring, 

If  envy,  scorn,  remorse,  or  pride,  the  bosom  wring  ?" 

3.  "  Women  are  soft,  mild,  pitiful,  and  flexible  ; 

Thou,  stern,  obdurate,  flinty,  rough,  remorseless." 

4.  "  She  plans,  provides,  expatiates,  triumphs  there." 

OBS. — Two  or  more  words  are  in  the  same  construction,  when  they  have 
t  common  dependence  on  some  other  term,  and  are  parsed  alike. 

RULE    IV. — ONLY    TWO    WORDS. 

When  only  two  words  or  terms  are  connected  by  a  conjuno- 


220  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

tion,  they  should  not  be  separated  by  the  comma ;  as,  "  De- 
spair and  anguish  fled  the  struggling  soul." — Goldsmith. 

Exception  1.  When  the  two  words  connected  have  several 
adjuncts,  the  comma  is  inserted ;  as,  "  Honesty  in  his  dealings, 
and  attention  to  his  business,  procured  him  both  esteem  and 
wealth.'' 

Exception  2.  When  the  two  words  connected  are  emphati- 
cally distinguished,  the  comma  is  inserted ;  as, 

"  Liberal,  not  lavish,  is  kind  Nature's  hand." — BeaUie. 
"  'Tis  certain  he  could  write,  and  cipher  too." — Golds. 

Exception  3.  When  there  is  merely  an  alternative  of  words, 
the  comma  is  inserted ;  as,  "  We  saw  a  large  opening,  or  inlet." 

Exception  4.  When  the  conjunction  is  understood,  the 
comma  is  inserted ;  as, 

"  She  thought  the  isle  that  gave  her  birth, 
The  sweetest,  wildest  land  on  earth." — Hogg. 

RULE    V. WORDS    IN    PAIRS. 

When  successive  words  are  joined  in  pairs  by  conjunctions, 
they  should  be  separated  in  pairs  by  the  comma ;  as,  "  Interest 
and  ambition,  honour  and  shame,  friendship  and  enmity,  grati- 
tude and  revenge,  are  the.  prime  movers  in  public  transac- 
tions." 

RULE    VI. — WORDS    ABSOLUTE. 

Words  put  absolute,  should,  with  their  adjuncts,  be  set  off 
by  the  comma ;  as,  "  The  prince,  his  father  bei?ig  dead,  suc- 
ceeded."— "  This  done,  we  parted." — "  Zaccheus,  make  haste 
and  come  dov/n." — "  His  pr&torship  in  Sicily ',  what  did  it  pro- 
duce?" 

RULE    VII. — WORDS    IN    APPOSITION. 

Words  put  in  apposition,  (especially  if  they  have  adjuncts,) 
are  generally  set  oft  by  the  comma  ;  as,  "  He  that  now  calls 
upon  thee,  is  Theodore,  the  hermit  of  Teneriffe" 

Exception  1.  When  several  words  are  used  as  one  compound 
name,  the  comma  is  not  inserted ;  as,  "  Samuel  Johnson" — 
"  Publius  Gavius  Cosanus." 

Exception  2.  When  a  common  and  a  proper  name  are  closely 
united,  the  comma  is  not  inserted ;  as,  "  The  brook  Kidron"— 
"The  river  Don"— -"  The  empress  Catharine"— "  Paul  the 
apostle." 

Exception  3.  When  a  pronoun  is  added  to  another  word 
merely  for  emphasis  and  distinction,  the  comma  is  not  inserted ; 


PROSODY. PUNCTUATION.  221 

as,  "  Ye  men  of  Athens" — "  I  myself" — "  Thou  flaming  min- 
ister"— "  You  princes." 

Exception  4.  When  a  name  acquired  by  some  action  or  re- 
Cation,  is  put  in  apposition  with  a  preceding  noun  or  pronoun, 
the  comma  is  not  inserted  ;  as,  "  I  made  the  ground  my  bed" — 
"  To  make  him  king"  — "  Whom  they  revered  as  God?' — 
"  With  modesty  thy  guide." 

RULE    VIII. ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives,  when  something  depends  on  them,  or  when  they 
nave  the  import  of  a  dependent  clause,  should,  with  their  ad 
juncts,  be  set  off  by  the  comma  ;  as, 

1. "  Among  the  roots 

Of  hazel,  pendent  o'er  the  plaintive  stream, 

They  frame  the  first  foundation  of  their  domes." — Thorn. 

2.  "  Up  springs  the  lark, 

"  Shrill-voiced  and  loud,  the  messenger  of  morn." — Id. 

Exception.  When  an  adjective  immediately  follows  its  noun, 
and  is  taken  in  a  restrictive  sense,  the  comma  should  not  be 
used  before  it ;  as, 

"  On  the  coast  averse  from  entrance" — Milton. 

RULE    IX. FINITE    VERBS. 

Where  a  finite  verb  is  understood,  a  comma  is  generally  re- 
quired :  as,  "  From  law  arises  security  ;  from  security,  curios- 
ity j  from  curiosity,  knowledge. 

RULE    X. — INFINITIVES. 

The  infinitive  mood,  when  it  follows  a  verb  from  which  it 
must  be  separated,  or  when  it  depends  on  something  remote  or 
understood,  is  generally  set  ofF  by  the  comma ;  as,  "  His  de- 
light was,  to  assist  the  distressed" — "  To  conclude,  I  was  reduced 
to  beggary." 

"  The  Governor  of  all — has  interposed, 
Not  seldom,  his  avenging  arm,  to  smite 
The  injurious  trampler  upon  nature's  law." — Cowper. 

RULE    XI. — PARTICIPLES. 

Participles,  when  something  depends  on  them,  when  they 
have  the  import  of  a  dependent  clause,  or  when  they  relato  to 
something  understood,  should,  with  their  adjuncts,  be  set  off  by 
the  comma ;  as, 
1.  "  Young  Edwin,  lighted  by  the  evenmg  star, 

Lingering  and  listening,  wander'd  down  the  vale." 
19 


222  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

2.  "  United,  we  stand ;  divided,  we  fall." 

3.  K  Properly  speaking,  there  is  no  such  thing  as  chance." 

Exception. — When  a  participle  immediately  follows  its  noun 
and  is  taken  in  a  restrictive  sense,  the  comma  should  not  be 
used  before  it ;  as, 

"A  man  renowned  for  repartee, 
Will  seldom  scruple  to  make  free 
With  friendship's  finest  feeling." — Confer. 

RULE    XII. ADVERBS. 

Adverbs,  when  they  break  the  connexion  of  a  simple  sen- 
tence, or  when  they  have  not  a  close  dependence  on  some  par- 
ticular word  in  the  context,  should  be  set  off  by  the  comma  ; 
as,  "  We  must  not,  however,  confound  this  gentleness  with  the 
artificial  courtesy  of  the  world." — "  Besides,  the  mind  must  be 
employed." — "Most  unquestionably,  no  fraud  was  equal  to  all 
this." 

RULE    XIII. CONJUNCTIONS. 

Conjunctions,  when  they  are  separated  from  the  principal 
clause  that  depends  on  them,  or  when  they  introduce  an  exam- 
ple, are  generally  set  off  by  the  comma ;  as,  "  But,  by  a  timely 
call  upon  Religion,  the  force  of  Habit  was  eluded." — Johnson. 

RULE    XIV. PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions  and  their  objects,  when  they  break  the  connex- 
ion of  a  simple  sentence,  or  when  they  do  not  closely  follow 
the  words  on  which  they  depend,  are  generally  set  off  by  the 
comma  ;  as,  "  Fashion  is,  for  the  most  part,  nothing  but  the 
ostentation  of  riches." — "  By  reading,  we  add  the  experience  of 
others  to  our  own." 

RULE    XV. INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections  are  sometimes  set  off  by  the  comma;  as,  "  For, 
k,  I  will  call  all  the  families  of  the  kingdoms  of  the  north." — 
Jeremiah,  i.  15. 

RULE    XVI. — WORDS  REPEATED. 

A  word  emphatically  repeated,  should  be  set  off  by  the 
comma  ;  as,  "  Happy,  %happy,  haj.py  pair  1" — "  Ah  !  no,  no, 
no." 

RULE     XVII. DEPENDENT    QUOTATIONS. 

A  quotation  or  observation,  when  it  is  introduced  by  a  verb, 


PROSODY. PUNCTUATION.  223 

(as,  say,  reply,  and  the  like,)  is  generally  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  sentence  by  the  comma  ;  as,  " (  The  book  of  nature,1 
said  he,  '  is  open  before  thee.' " — "  I  say  unto  all,  Watch." 

OF  THE  SEMICOLON. 

The  Semicolon  is  used  to  separate  those  parts  of  a 
compound  sentence,  which  are  neither  so  closely  connect- 
ed as  those  which  are  distinguished  by  the  comma,  nor  so 
little  dependent  as  those  which  require  the  colon. 

RULE    I. COMPOUND    MEMBERS. 

When  several  compound  members,  some  or  all  of  which 
require  the  comma,  are  constructed  into  a  period,  they  are  gen- 
erally separated  by  the  semicolon  :  as,  "  In  the  regions  inhabit- 
ed by  angelic  natures,  unmingled  felicity  forever  blooms  ;  joy 
flows  there  with  a  perpetual  and  abundant  stream,  nor  needs 
any  mound  to  check  its  course." — Carter. 

RULE    II. SIMPLE    MEMBERS. 

When  several  simple  members,  each  of  which  is  complete 
in  sense,  are  constructed  into  a  period  ;  if  they  require  a  pause 
greater  than  that  of  the  comma,  they  are  usually  separated  by 
the  semicolon  :  as,  "  Straws  swim  upon  the  surface ;  but  pearls 
lie  at  the  bottom." 

"  A  longer  care  man's  helpless  kind  demands ; 
That  longer  care  contracts  more  lasting  bands." — Pope. 

RULE    III. APPOSITION,  &C. 

Words  in  apposition,  or  in  any  other  construction,  if  they 
require  a  pause  greater  than  that  of  the  comma,  and  less  than 
that  of  the  colon,  may  be  separated  by  the  semicolon:  as, 
"  There  are  five  moods  ;  the  infinitive,  the  indicative,  the  po- 
tential, the  subjunctive,  and  the  imperative." 

OF  THE  COLON. 

The  Colon  is  used  to  separate  those  parts  of  a  compound 
sentence,  which  are  neither  so  closely  connected  as  those 
which  are  distinguished  by  the  semicolon,  nor  so  little  de- 
pendent as  those  which  require  the  period. 

RULE    I. ADDITIONAL    REMARKS. 

When  the  preceding  clause  is  complete  in  itself,  but  is  fol- 
lowed by  some  additional  remark  or  illustration,  the  colon  is 
generally  used :  as,  "  Avoid  evil  doers :  in  suoh  society  an 
honest  man  may  become  ashamed  of  himself." — "See  that 


224  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

moth  fluttering-  incessantly  round  the  candle :  man  of  pleasure, 
behold  thy  image." 

RULE   II. — GREATER    PAUSES. 

When  the  semicolon  has  been  introduced,  and  a  still  greater 
pause  is  required  within  the  period,  the  colon  should  be  em- 
ployed :  as,  "  Princes  have  courtiers,  and  merchants  have  part- 
ners ;  the  voluptuous  have  companions,  and  the  wicked  have 
accomplices :  none  but  the  virtuous  can  have  friends." 

RULE  III. INDEPENDENT  QUOTATIONS. 

A  quotation  introduced  without  dependence  on  a  verb  or  a 
conjunction,  is  generally  preceded  by  the  colon  ;  as,  "  In  his 
last  moments  he  uttered  these  words  :  "  I  fall  a  sacrifice  to  sloth 
and  luxury" 

OF  THE  PERIOD. 

The  Period, or  Full  Stop,  is  used  to  mark  an  entire  and 
independent  sentence,  whether  simple  or  compound. 

RULE    I. DISTINCT    SENTENCES. 

When  a  sentence  is  complete  in  respect  to  sense,  and  in- 
dependent in  respect  to  construction,  it  should  be  marked  with 
the  period  :  as,  "  Every  deviation  from  truth  is  criminal.  Ab- 
hor a  falsehood.  Let  your  words  be  ingenuous.  Sincerity  pos- 
sesses the  most  powerful  charm." 

RULE    II. ALLIED    SENTENCES. 

The  period  is  often  employed  between  two  sentences  which 
have  a  general  connexion,  expressed  by  a  personal  pronoun,  a 
conjunction,  or  a  conjunctive  adverb  ;  as,  "  The  selfish  man 
languishes  in  his  narrow  circle  of  pleasures.  They  are  con- 
fined to  what  affects  his  own  interests.  He  is  obliged  to  repeat 
the  same  gratifications,  till  they  become  insipid.  But  the  man 
of  virtuous  sensibility  moves  in  a  wider  sphere  of  felicity." — 
Blair. 

RULE    III. ABBREVIATIONS. 

The  period  is  generally  used  after  abbreviations  ;  as,  A.  D. 
for  Anno  Domini — Pro  tern,  for  pro  tempore — Ult.  for  ultimo — 
i  e.  for  id  est,  that  is. 

OF  THE  DASH. 

The  Dash  is  used  to  denote  an  unexpected  or  emphatic 
pause  of  variable  length. 


PROSODY. PUNCTUATION. 

RULE    I. — ABRUPT    PAUSES. 

A  sudden  interruption  or  transition  should  be  marked  with 
the  dash  ;  as,  "  I  must  inquire  into  the  affair,  and  if7 — l  And 
if!1  interrupted  the  farmer." 

"  Here  lies  the  great — false  marble,  where  ? 
Nothing  but  sordid  dust  lies  here." — Young. 

RULE    II. EMPHATIC    PAUSES. 

To  mark  a  considerable  pause,  greater  than  the  structure  of 
the  sentence  or  the  points  inserted,  would  seem  to  require,  the 
dash  may  be  employed ;  as, 

1.  "  And  now  they  part — to  meet  no  more." 

2.  "  Revere  thyself; — and  yet  thyself  despise." 

3.  "  Behold  the  picture  ! — Is  it  like  ? — Like  whom  ?" 

OF  THE  NOTE  OF  INTERROGATION. 
The  note  of  Interrogation  is  used  to  designate  a  question. 

RULE    I.— QUESTIONS    DIRECT. 

Questions  expressed  directly  as  such,  should  always  be  fol- 
lowed by  the  note  of  interrogation  ;  as, 

"  In  life,  can  love  be  bought  with  gold  ? 
Are  friendship's  pleasures  to  be  sold  ?" — Johnson. 

RULE    II. QUESTIONS    UNITED. 

When  two  or  more  questions  are  united  in  one  compound 
sentence,  the  comma  or  semicolon  is  sometimes  placed  between 
them,  and  the  note  of  interrogation,  after  the  last  only  ;  as, 

"  Truths  would  you  teach,  or  save  a  sinking  land  ? 
All  fear,  none  aid  you,  and  few  understand." — Pope. 

RULE    III. QUESTIONS    INDIRECT. 

When  a  question  is  mentioned,  but  not  put  directly  as  a 
question,  it  loses  both  the  quality  and  the  sign  of  interrogation  ; 
as,  "  The  Cyprians  asked  me  why  I  wept." 

OF  THE  NOTE  OF  EXCLAMATION. 

The  Note  of  Exclamation  is  used  to  denote  some  strong 
or  sudden  emotion  of  the  mind  j  and,  as  a  sign  of  great 
wonder,  it  may  be  repeated !  ! ! 


226  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

RULE    I. INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections  and  other  expressions  of  great  emotion,  are  gen- 
erally followed  by  the  note  of  exclamation  ;  as, 

"  O  !  let  me  listen  to  the  words  of  life  !" — Thomson. 

RULE    II. INVOCATIONS. 

After  an  earnest  address  or  invocation,  the  note  of  exclama- 
tion is  usually  preferred  to  the  comma:  as,  "  Whereupon,  O 
king  Agrippa  !  I  was  not  disobedient  unto  the  heavenly 
vision." — Acts,  xxvi.  19. 

RULE    III. EXCLAMATORY   QUESTIONS. 

A  question  uttered  with  vehemence,  and  without  reference 
to  an  answer,  should  be  followed  by  the  note  of  exclamation ; 
as,  "  How  madly  have  I  talked  1" — V^oung. 

OF  THE  PARENTHESIS. 

The  Parenthesis  is  used  to  distinguish  a  clause  that  is 
hastily  thrown  in  between  the  parts  of  a  sentence  to  which 
it  does  not  properly  belong ;  as, 

"  To  others  do  (the  law  is  not  severe) 
What  to  thyself  thou  wishest  to  be  done." — Beattie. 

OBS. — The  incidental  clause  should  be  uttered  in  a  lower  tone,  and  faster, 
than  the  principal  sentence*  It  always  requires  a  pause  as  great  as  that  of 
a  comma,  or  greater. 

RULE  I. INCIDENTAL  CLAUSES. 

A  clause  that  breaks  the  unity  of  a  sentence  too  much  to  be 
incorporated  with  it,  and  only  such,  should  be  enclosed  in  a 
parenthesis ;  as, 

"  Know  then  this  truth,  (enough  for  man  to  know,) 
.  Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below." — Pope. 

RULE    II. — INCLUDED    POINTS 

The  parenthesis  does  not  supersede  the  other  stops ;  it  termi- 
nates with  a  pause  equal  to  that  which  precedes  it ;  and  it 
should  include  the  same  point,  except  when  the  sentences  differ 
m  form :  as, 

1.  "  Man's  thirst  of  happiness  declares  it  is  : 

(For  nature  never  gravitates  to  nought :) 

That  thirst  unquench'd,  declares  it  is  not  here." — Young. 

2.  tt  Night  visions  may  befriend  :  (as  sung  above:) 

Our  waking  dreams  are  fatal.  How  I  dreamt 
Of  things  impossible  !  (could  sleep  do  more  ?) 
Of  joys  perpetual  in  perpetual  change." — Young. 


PROSODY. PUNCTUATION.  227 

OF  THE  OTHER  MARKS. 

There  are  also  several  other  marks,  which  are  occasion- 
ally used  for  various  purposes,  as  follow  : 

1.  [']  The  Apostrophe  denotes  either  the  possessive  case,  or  the 
elision  of  one  or  more  letters  of  a  word :  as,  The  girl's  regard 
to  her  parents'  advice  ; — 'gan,  lov'd,  e'en,  thro1 ;  for  began,  loved^ 
even,  through. 

2.  [-]  The  Hyphen  connects  the  parts  of  compound  words ; 
as,  ever-living.     Placed  at  the  end  of  a  line,  it  shows  that  one 
or  more  syllables  of  a  word  are  carried  forward  to  the  next  line. 

3.  [-]  The  Diaresis,  placed  over  the  latter  of  two  vowels, 
shows  that  they  are  not  a  diphthong :  as,  aerial. 

4.  [']  The  Acute  Accent  marks  the  syllable  which  requires 
the  principal  stress  in  pronunciation  ;  as,  equal,  equal'ity.     It 
is  sometimes  used  in  opposition  to  the  grave  accent,  to  dis- 
tinguish a  close  vowel,  or  to  denote  the  rising  inflection  of  the 
voice. 

.*.  [N]  The  Grave  Accent  is  used  in  opposition  to  the  acute, 
to  distinguish  an  open  vowel  or  to  denote  the  falling  inflection 
of  the  voice. 

6.  [*]  The  Circumflex  generally  denotes  the  broad  sound  of 
a  vowel ;  as,  eclat. 

7.  [~]  The  Breve  is  used  to  denote  either  a  close  vowel  or  a 
syllable  of  short  quantity ;  as  raven,  to  devour. 

8.  ["]  The  Macron  is  used  to  denote  either  an  open  vowel 
or  a  syllable  of  long  quantity  ;  as,  raven,  a  bird. 

9.  [ ]  or  [****]  The  Ellipsis  denotes  the  omission  of 

some  letters  or  words  ;  as,  K — g,  for  king. 

10.  [A]  The  Caret  shows  where  to  insert  words  or  letters 
that  have  been  accidentally  omitted. 

1 1.  [~^]  The  Brace  serves  to  unite  a  triplet ;  or  to  connect 
several  terms  with  something  to  which  they  are  all  related. 

12.  [§]  The  Section  marks  the  smaller  divisions  of  a  book 
or  chapter. 

13.  [T]  The  Paragraph  (chiefly  used  in  the  Bible)  denotes 
the  commencement  of  a  new  subject.     The  parts  of  discourse 
which  are  called  paragraphs,  are,  in  general,  sufficiently  dis- 
tinguished, by  beginning  a  new  line,  and  carrying  the  first 
word  a  little  forwards  or  backwards. 

14.  ["  "]  The  Quotation  Points  distinguish  words  that  are 
taken  from  an  other  author  or  speaker.     A  quotation  with;n  a 
quotation  is  marked  with  single  points ;  which,  when  both  are 
employed,  are  placed  within  the  others. 


228  ENGLISH    GRAMMA*. 

15-  [[]]  The  Crotchets  generally  enclose  some  correction  or 
explanation,  or  the  subject  to  be  explained ;  as,  "  He  [the 
speaker]  was  of  a  different  opinion." 

16.  [H3"]   The  Index  points  out  something  remarkable. 

17.  [*J  The  Asterisk,  [t]  the  Obelisk,  [J]  the  Double  Dagger, 
and  [||]  the  Parallel,  refer  to  marginal  notes.     The  letters  of  the 
alphabet,  or  the  numerical  figures,  may  be  used  for  the  same 
purpose. 

O*  [For  oral  exercises  in  punctuation,  the  teacher  may  select  any  well- 
pointed  book,  to  which  the  foregoing  rules  and  explanations  may  be  applied 
by  the  pupil.] 


UTTERANCE. 

Utterance  is  the  art  of  vocal  expression.  It  includes 
the  principles  of  pronunciation  and  elocution. 

OF  PRONUNCIATION. 

Pronunciation,  as  distinguished  from  elocution,  is  the  ut- 
terance of  words  taken  separately. 

Pronunciation  requires  a  knowledge  of  the  just  powers 
of  the  letters  in  all  their  combinations,  and  of  the  force 
and  seat  of  the  accent. 

I.  The  Just  Powers  of  the  letters,  are  those  sounds  which  are 
given  to  them  by  the  best  readers. 

II.  Accent  is  the  peculiar  stress  which  we  lay  upon  some  par- 
ticular syllable  of  a  word,  whereby  that  syllable  is  distinguish- 
ed from  the  rest ;  as,  grdm-mar,  gram-ma-ri-an. 

Every  word  of  more  than  one  syllable,  has  one  of  its  sylla- 
bles accented. 

When  the  word  is  long,  for  the  sake  of  harmony  or  distinct- 
ness, we  often  give  a  secondary  or  less  forcible  accent  to  an 
other  syllable  ;  as,  to  the  last  of  tem-per-a-ture,  and  to  the  second 
of  in-dem-ni-fi-ca-tion. 

A  full  and  open  pronunciation  of  the  long  vowel  sounds,  a 
clear  articulation  of  the  consonants,  a  forcible  and  well-placed 
accent,  and  a  distinct  utterance  of  the  unaccented  syllables,  dis- 
tinguish the  elegant  speaker. 

[?rlf  For  a  full  explanation  of  the  principle*  of  pronunciation,  theloarner 
is  referred  to  Walker's  Critical  Pronouncing  Dictionary.] 

OF  ELOCUTION. 

Elocution  is  the  utterance  of  words  that  are  arranged 
into  sentences,  and  form  discourse. 

Elocution  requires  a  knowledge,  and  right  application, 
of  emphasis,  pauses,  inflections,  and  tones. 


PROSODY. FIGURES.  229 

I.  Emphasis  is  the  peculiar  stress  of  voice  which  we  lay 
upon  some  particular  word  or  words  in  a  sentence,  which  are 
thereby  distinguished  from  the  rest. 

II.  Pauses  are  cessations  in  utterance,  which  serve  equally  to 
relieve  the  speaker,  and  to  render  language  intelligible  and 
pleasing.     The  duration  of  the  pauses  should  be  proportionate 
to  the  degree  of  connexion  between  the  parts  of  the  discourse. 

III.  Inflections  are  those  peculiar  variations  of  the  human 
voice,  by  which  a  continuous  sound  is  made  to  pass  from  one 
note  into  an  other.     The  passage  of  the  voice  from  a  lower  to 
a  higher  or  shriller  note,  is  called  the  rising  inflection.     The 
passage  of  the  voice  from  a  higher  to  a  lower  or  graver  note, 
is  called  the  falling  inflection.     These  two  opposite  inflections 
may  be  heard  in  the  following  examples  :   1.  The  rising,  "Do 
you  mean  to  go .?"     2.   The  fatting,  "  When  will  you  go  .?" 

OBS. — Questions  that  may  be  answered  by  yes  or  no,  require  the  rising 
inflection  ;  those  that  demand  any  other  answer,  must  be  uttered  with  the 
falling  inflection. 

IV.  Tones  are  those  modulations  of  the  voice,  which  depend 
upon  the  feelings  of  the  speaker.     And  it  is  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance, that  they  be  natural,  and  adapted  to  the  subject  and  to 
the  occasion  :  for  upon  them,  in  a  great  measure,  depends  all 
that  is  pleasing  or  interesting  in  elocution. 


FIGURES. 

A  Figure,  in  grammar,  is  an  intentional  deviation  from 
the  ordinary  form,  construction,  or  application,  of  words. 
There  are,  accordingly,  figures  of  Etymology,  figures  of 
Syntax,  and  figures  of  Rhetoric.  When  figures  are  judi- 
ciously employed,  they  both  strengthen  and  adorn  expres- 
sion. They  occur  more  frequently  in  poetry  than  in 
prose ;  and  several  of  them  are  merely  poetic  licenses. 

FIGURES  OP  ETYMOLOGY. 

A  Figure  of  Etymology  is  an  intentional  deviation 
from  the  ordinary  form  of  a  word. 

The  principal  figures  of  Etymology  are  eight;  namely, 
A-phxr-e-sis,  Pros-Ike- sis,  Syn-co-pe,  A-poc-o-pe,  Par-a-go-ge,  Di- 
(Br-e-sis,  Syn-ar-e-sis,  and  Tme-sis. 

1.  Apharesis  is  the  elision  of  some  of  the  initial  letters  of  a 
word ;  as,  'gainst,  'gun,  'ne&th, — for  against,  began,  beneath. 

20 


*30  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

II.  Prosthesis  is  the  prefixing  of  an  expletive  syllable  to  a 
word  ;   as,   ad  own,   ^paid,    bestiown,  evanished,    yclad, — for 
dawn*  paid,  strown,  vanished^  clad. 

III.  Syncope   is  the  elision   of  some  of  the  middle  letters 
of  a   word ;    as,   med'cine,  for  medicine ;    sdnnight,   for   seven- 
night. 

IV.  Apocope  is  the  elision  of  some  of  the  final  letters  of  a 
word  ;  as,  tho\  for  though — th\  for  the. 

V.  Paragoge  is  the  annexing  of  an  expletive  syllable  to  a 
word ;  as,  withouten,  for  without— -deary,  for  dear. 

VI.  Di&resis  is  the  separating  of   two  vowels  that  might 
form  a  diphthong ;   as,  cooperate,  not  cooperate — aeronaut,  not 
&ronaut. 

VII.  Syn&resis  is  the  sinking  of  two  syllables  into  one  ;  as, 
seest,  for  seest — tacked,  for  tack-ed— -drowned,  for  drown-ed. 

OBS. — When  a  vowel  is  entirely  suppressed  in  pronunciation,  (whether 
retained  in  writing  or  not,)  the  consonants  connected  with  it,  fall  into  an 
other  syllable :  thus,  tried,  triest,  loved  or  lov'd,  lonest  or  lov'st,  are  monosyl- 
lables ;  except  in  solemn  discourse,  in  which  the  e  is  generally  retained  and 
made  vocal. 

VIII.  Tmesis  is  the  inserting  of  a  word  between  the  parts  of 
a  compound  ;  as,  "  On  which  side  soever" — "  To  us  ward." — 
"  To  God  ward." 

FIGURES  OF  SYNTAX. 

A  Figure  of  Syntax  is  an  intentional  deviation  from 
the  ordinary  construction  of  words. 

The  principal  figures  of  Syntax  are  five  ;  namely,  El-lip-sis, 
Ple-o-nasm,  Syl-lep-sis,  En-al-la-ge,  and  Hy-per-ba-ton. 

I.  Ellipsis*  is  the  omission  of  some  word  or  words  which  are 

*  There  never  can  be  an  ellipsis  of  any  thing  which  is  either  unnecessary 
to  the  construction  or  necessary  to  the  sense  ;  for  to  say  what  we  mean  and 
nothing  more,  never  can  constitute  a  deviation  from  the  ordinary  grammati- 
cal construction  of  words.  As  a  figure  of  Syntax,  therefore,  the  ellipsis  can 
be  only  of  such  words  as  are  so  evidently  suggested  to  the  reader,  that  the 
writer  is  as  fully  answerable  for  them  as  if  he  had  written  them.  To  sup- 
pose an  ellipsis  where  there  is  none,  or  to  overlook  one  where  it  really  occurs, 
is  to  pervert  or  mutilate  the  text,  in  order  to  accommodate  it  to  the  parser's 
ignorance  of  the  principles  of  syntax.  There  never  can  be  either  a  general 
uniformity  or  a  self-consistency  in  our  methods  of  parsing,  or  in  our  notions 
of  grammar,  till  the  true  nature  of  an  ellipsis  is  clearly  ascertained  ;  so  that 
the  writer  shall  distinguish  it  from  a  blundering  omission  that  impairs  the 
sense,  and  the  reader  be  barred  from  an  arbitrary  insertion  of  what  would  be 
cumbrous  and  useless.  By  adopting  loose  and  extravagant  ideas  of  the  na- 
ture of  this  figure,  some  pretenders  to  learning  and  philosophy  have  been  led 
into  the  most  whimsical  and  opposite  notions  concerning  the  grammatical 
construction  of  language  Thus,  with  equal  absurdity,  Cardeu  and  SAcr- 
man,  in  their  Philosophic  Grammars,  attempt  to  confute  the  doctrine* 
of  their  predecessors,  by  supposing  ellipsis  at  pleasure.  And  while  the 
formar  teaches,  that  prepositions  do  not  govern  tna  objective  cose,  but  that 


PROSODY. — FIGURES.  23* 

necessary  to  complete  the  construction,  but  not  necessary  to 
convey  the  meaning.  Such  words  are  said  to  be  understood ; 
because  they  are  received  as  belonging  to  the  sentence,  though 
they  are  not  uttered. 

Almost  all  compound  sentences  are  more  or  less  elliptical. 
There  may  be  an  omission  of  any  of  the  parts  of  speech,  or 
even  of  a  whole  clause  ;  but  the  omission  of  articles  or  interjec- 
tions can  scarcely  constitute  a  proper  ellipsis.  Examples : 

1.  Of  the  Article  ;  as,  "  A  man  and  [a,]  woman" — "  The  day, 
[the]  month,  and  [the]  year." 

2.  Of  the  Noun ;  as,  "  The  common  [law]  and  the   statute 
law" — "  The  twelve  [apostles]" — "  One  [book]  of  my  books" — 
"  A  dozen  [bottles]  of  wine." 

3.  Of  the  Adjective;  as,  "  There  are  subjects  proper  for  the 
one,  and  not  [proper]  for  the  other." — Kames. 

4.  Of  the  Pronoun  ;  as,  "  I  love  [him]  and  [/]  fear  him." — 
"  The  estates  [which]  we  own." 

5.  Of  the  Verb;  as,   "Who   did   this?     I"  [did  it}.— "To 
whom  thus  Eve,  yet  sinless"  [spoke]. 

6.  Of  the  Participle ;  as,  "  That  [being]  o'er,  they  part" 

7.  Of  the  Adverb ;  as,  "  He  spoke  [wisely]  and  acted  wisely." 
— "  Exceedingly  great  and  [exceedingly]  powerful." 

8.  Of  the  Conjunction ;  as,  "  The  fruit  of  the  Spirit  is  love, 
[and]  joy,  [and]  peace,  [and]  long-suffering,  [and]  gentleness, 
[and]  goodness,  [and]   faith,   [and]   meekness,   [and]  temper- 
ance."— Gal  v.  22.     The  repetition  of  the  conjunction  is  called 
Polysyndeton ;  and  the  omission  of  it,  Asyndeton. 

9.  Of  the  Preposition;    as,  «  [On]    this  day"— "  [hi]  next 
month" — "  He  departed  [  from]  this  life" — "  He  gave  [to]  me  a 
book"—"  To  walk  [through]  a  mile." 

10.  Of  the  Interjection;   as,  "Oh!  the   frailty,   [Oh!]   the 
wickedness  of  men !" 

11.  Of  a  Clause ;  as,  "  The  active  commonly  do  more  than 
they  are  bound  to  do ;  the  indolent  [commonly  do]  less"  [than 
thty  are  bound  to  do]. 

II.  Pleonasm  is  the  introduction  of  superfluous  words. 
This  figure  is  allowable  only,  when,  in  animated  discourse,  it 
abruptly  introduces  an  emphatic  word,  or  repeats  an  idea  to 
impress  it  more  strongly  ;  as, "  He  that  hath  ears  to  hear,  let  him 
hear  !" — "  All  ye  inhabitants  of  the  world,  and  dwellers  on  the 


every  verb  is  transitive,  and  governs  at  least  two  objects,  expressed  or  under' 
ttood,  its  own  and  tliat  of  a  preposition  ;  the  latter,  with  just  as  good  an  anju 
ment,  contends,  that  no  verb  ia  transitive,  but  that  every  objective  case  is 
governed  by  a  preposition  expressed  or  understood.  A  world  of  nonieMe  for 
lack  of  a  definition  ! 


232  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

earth  /" — "  There  shall  not  be  left  one  stone  upon  an  other  that 
shall  not  be  thrown  down" — "  I  know  thee  who  thou  art" — Bi- 
ble. A  Pleonasm  is  sometimes  impressive  and  elegant ;  but  an 
unemphatic  repetition  of  the  same  idea,  is  one  of  the  worst  faults 
of  bad  writing. 

III.  Sylkpsis  is  agreement  formed  according  to  the  figurative 
sense  of  a  word,  or  the  mental  conception  of  the  thing  spoken 
of,  and  not  according  to  the  literal  or  common  use  of  the  term  ; 
it  is  therefore,  in  general,  connected  with  some  figure  of  rhet- 
oric :  as,  u  The  Word  was  made  flesh  and  dwelt  among  us,  and 
we  beheld  his  glory." — John^  i.  14.     "  Then  Philip  went  down 
to  the  city  of  Samaria,  and  preached  Christ  unto  them" — Acts, 
viii.  5.     "  While  Evening  draws  her  crimson  curtain  round." — 
Thomson. 

IV.  Enallage  is  the  use  of  one  part  of  speech,  or  of  one 
modification  for  an  other.     This  figure  borders  closely  upon 
solecism  ;*  and,  for  the  stability  of  the  language,  it  should  be 
sparingly  indulged.     There  are,  however,  several  forms  of  it 
which  can  appeal  to  good  authority :  as, 

1.  "  You  know  that  you  are  Brutus,  that  say  this." — Shak. 

2.  "  They  fall  successive  [ly,]  and  successive  [ly]  rise.' —Pope. 

3.  "  Than  whom  [who]  none  higher  sat." — Milton. 

4.  "  Sure  some  disaster  has  befell"  [befallen.] — Gay. 

5.  "  So  furious  was  that  onset's  shock, 

Destruction's  gates  at  once  unlock" — Hogg. 

V.  Hyperbaton  is  the  transposition  of  words ;  as,  "He  wan- 
ders earth  around" — Cowper.     "  Rings  the  world  with  the  vain 
stir." — Id.     "  Whom  therefore  ye  ignorantly  worship,  him  de- 
clare I  unto  you." — Acts.     This  figure  is  much  employed  in 
poetry.    A  judicious  use  of  it  confers  harmony,  variety,  strength, 
and  vivacity  upon  composition.     But  care  should  be  taken  lest 
it  produce  ambiguity  or  obscurity. 

FIGURES  OF  RHETORIC. 

A  Figure  of  Rhetoric  is  an  intentional  deviation  from 
the  ordinary  application  of  words.  Figures  of  this  kind 
are  commonly  called  Tropes. 

*  Deviations  of  this  kind  are,  in  general,  to  be  considered  solecisms ;  other- 
wise, the  rules  of  grammar  would  be  of  no  use  or  authority.  Despaufer,  an 
ancient  Latin  grammarian,  gave  an  improper  latitude  to  this  figure,  under  the 
name  of  Antiptosis  ;  and  Behourt  and  others  extended  it  still  further.  But 
Sanctius  says,  Antiptosi  grammaticorum  nihil  imperitius,  quod  Jtgmentu?n  si 
essct  verum,  frustra  qucereretur,  quern  casum  verba  regerent.  And  the  Mes- 
sieurs De  Port  Royal  reject  the  figure  altogether.  There  are,  however,  some 
changes  of  this  kind,  which  the  grammarian  is  not  competent  to  condemn, 
\  they  do  net  accord  with  the  ordinary  principles  of  construction* 


PROSODY. FIGURES.  233 

Numerous  departures  from  perfect  simplicity  of  diction, 
occur  in  almost  every  kind  of  composition.  They  are  mostly 
founded  on  some  similitude  or  relation  of  thing's,  which,  by 
the  power  of  imagination,  is  rendered  conducive  to  ornament 
or  illustration. 

The  principal  figures  of  Rhetoric  are  fourteen  ;  namely, 
Sim4-k,  Met-a-phor,  Al-le-gor-y,  Me-ton-y-my,  Sy-nec-do-che,  Hy- 
pe r-bo-le,  Vis-ion,  A-pos-tro-phe,  Per-son-i-fi-ca-tion,  Er-o-te-sis,  Eo 
pho-ne-sis,  An-tith-e-sis,  Cli-maz,  and  I-rony. 

I.  A  Simile  is  a  simple  and  express  comparison  ;  and  is  gen 
erally  introduced  by  like,  as,  or  so :  as, 

"  At  first,  like  thunder's  distant  tone, 
The  rattling  din  came  rolling  on." — Hogg. 

"  Man,  like  the  generous  vine,  supported  lives  ; 
The  strength  he  gains,  is  from  th'  embrace  he  gives." — Pope 

II.  A  Metaphor  is  a   figure  that  expresses  the  resemblance 
of  two  objects  by  applying  either  the  name,  or  some  attribute, 
adjunct,  or  action,  of  the  one,  directly  to  the  other ;  as, 

1.  "  His  eye  was  morning's  brightest  ray" — Hogg. 

2.  "  An  angler  in  the  tides  of  fame." — Id. 

3.  "  Beside  him  sleeps  the  warrior's  bow." — Langhorne. 

4.  "  Wild  fancies  in  his  moody  brain, 

Gambol' d  unbridled  and  unbound" — Hogg. 

5.  "  Speechless,  and  fix'd  in  all  the  death  of  wo." — Thorn. 

III.  An  Allegory  is  a  continued  narration  of  fictitious  events, 
designed  to  represent  and  illustrate  important  realities.     Thus 
the  Psalmist  represents  the  Jewish  nation  under  the  symbol  of 
a  vine :  "  Thou  hast  brought  a  vine  out  of  Egypt :  thou  hast 
cast  out  the  heathen  and  planted  it.     Thou  preparedst  room 
before  it,  and  didst  cause  it  to  take  deep  root ;  and  it  filled  the 
land.     The  hills  were  .covered  with  the  shadow  of  it,  and  the 
boughs  thereof  were  like  the  goodly  cedars." — Ps.  Ixxx.  8. 

OBS. — The  Attegory,  agreeably  to  the  foregoing  definition  of  it,  includes 
most  of  those  similitudes  which  in  the  Scriptures  are  called  parables;  it 
includes  also  the  better  sort  of  fables.  The  term  allegory  is  sometimes 
applied  to  a  true  history  in  which  something  else  is  intended,  than  is  con- 
tained in  the  words  literally  taken.  [See  Gal.  iv.  24.]  In  the  Scripturest 
the  term  fable  denotes  an  idle  and  groundless  story.  [See  1  Tim.  iv.  1, 
and  2  Pet.  i.  16.  J 

IV.  A  Metonymy  is  a  change  of  names.     It  is  founded  on 
some  such  relation  as  that  of  cause  and  effect,  of  subject  and 
adjunct^  of  place  and  inhabitant,  of  container,  and  thing  con- 
tained, or  of  sign  and  thing  signified :  as,  "  God  is  our  salva- 
tion;" i.  e.  Saviour. — "He  was  the  sigh  of  her  secret  soul;" 

20* 


234  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

i.  e.  the  youth  she  loved. — "  They  smote  the  city ;"  i.  e.  citi- 
zens.— "  My  son,  give  me  thy  heart ;"  i.  e.  affection. — "  The 
sceptre  shall  not  depart  from  Judah  ;"  i.  e.  kingly  power. 

V.  Synecdoche  is  the  naming  of  the  whole  for  a  part,  or  of  a 
part  for  the  whole ;  as,  "  This  roof  [i.  e.  house]  protects  you." 
— "  Now  the  year  [i.  e.  summer]  is  beautiful." 

VI.  Hyperbole   is  extravagant  exaggeration,  in  which   the 
imagination  is  indulged  beyond  the  sobriety  of  truth  ;  as, 

"  The  sky  shrunk  upward  with  unusual  dread, 
And  trembling  Tiber  div'd  beneath  his  bed?' — Dryden. 

VII.  Vision,  or  Imagery,  is  a  figure  by  which  the  speaker 
represents  the  objects  of  his  imagination,  as  actually  before  his 
eyes  and  present  to  his  senses  ;  as, 

"  I  see  the  dagger-crest  of  Mar ! 
I  see  the  Moray's  silver  star 
Wave  o'er  the  cloud  of  Saxon  war, 
That  up  the  lake  comes  winding  far  1" — Scott. 

VIII.  Apostrophe  is  a  turning  from  the  regular  course  of  the 
subject,  into  an  animated  address ;  as,  "  Death  is  swallowed  up 
in  victory.     O  Death !  where  is  thy  sting  ?     O  Grave  !  where 
is  thy  victory?" — 1  Cor.  xv.  54,  55. 

IX.  Personification  is  a  figure  by  which,  in  imagination,  we 
ascribe  intellig  ence  and  personality  to  unintelligent  beings  or 
abstract  qualities ;  as, 

L  "  The  Worm,  aware  of  his  intent, 

Harangued  him  thus,  right  eloquent." — Cowper. 

2.  "  Lo,  steel-clad  War  his  gorgeous  standard  rears !" — Rog 

3.  "  Hark  !   Tndk  proclaims,  thy  triumph  cease."— Id. 

X.  Erotesis  is  a  figure  in  which  the  speaker  adopts  the  form 
of  interrogation,  not  to  express  a  doubt,  but,  in  general,  confi- 
dently to  assert  the  reverse  of  wnat  is  asked;  as,  "  Hast  thou 
an  arm  like  God?  or  canst  thou  thunder  with  a  voice  like 
him  ?" — Job,  xl.  9.     "  He  that  planted  the  ear,  shall  he  not 
hear  ?  he  tnat  formed  the  eye,  shall  he  not  see  ?;l — Ps.  xciv.  9. 

XL  Ecphonesis  is  a  pathetic  exclamation,  denoting  some 
violent  emotion  of  the  mind  ;  as,  "  O  liberty ! — O  sound  once 
delightful  to  every  Roman  ear  ! — O  sacred  privilege  of  Roman 
citizenship  ! — once  sacred — now  trampled  upon  !" — Cicero.  "  O 
that  I  had  wings  like  a  dove !  for  then  would  I  fly  away  and 
De  at  rest !" — Ps.  Iv.  6. 

XII.  Antithesis  is  a  placing  of  tilings  in  opposition,  to 
heighten  their  effect  by  contrast ;  as, 

"  Contrasted  faults  through  all  his  manners  reign  ; 
Though  poor,  luxurious ;  though  submissive,  vain 


PROSODY. VERSIFICATION. 

Though  grave,  yet  trifling  ;  zealous,  yet  utdrue ; 

And  e'en  in  penance,  planning  sins  anew.'' — Goldsmith. 

XIII.  Climax  is  a  figure  in  which  the  sense  is  made  to  ad- 
vance by  successive  steps,  to  rise  gradually  to  what  is  more  and 
more  important  and  interesting,  or  to  descend  to  what  is  more 
and  more  minute  and  particular  ;  as,  u  And  besides  this,  giving 
all  diligence,  add  to  your  faith,  virtue  ;  and  to  virtue,  knowl- 
edge ;  and  to  knowledge,  temperance  ;  and  to  temperance,  pa 
tience ;  and  to  patience,  godliness  ;  and  to  godliness,  brotherl) 
kindness ;  and  to  brotherly  kindness,  charity." — 2  Pet.  L  5. 

XIV.  Irony  is  a  figure  in  which  the  speaker  sneeringly  ut 
ters  the  direct  reverse  of  what  he  intends  shall  be  understood; 
as,  "  We  have,  to  be  sure,  great  reason  to  believe  the  modest 
man  would  not  ask  him  for  a  debt,  when  he  pursues  his  life." 
— Cicero. 


VERSIFICATION. 

Versification  is  the  art  of  arranging  words  into  lines  of 
correspondent  length,  so  as  to  produce  harmony  by  the 
regular  alternation  of  syllables  differing  in  quantity. 

The  Quantity  of  a  syllable,  is  the  relative  portion  of  time  oc- 
cupied in  uttering  it.  In  poetry,  every  syllable  is  considered 
to  be  either  long  or  short.  A  long  syllable  is  reckoned  to  be 
equal  to  two  short  ones. 

OBS.  1. — The  quantity  of  a  syllable  does  not  depend  on  the  sound  of 
the  vowel  or  diphthong,  but  principally  on  the  degree  of  accentual  force 
with  which  the  syllable  is  uttered,  whereby  a  greater  or  less  portion  of  time 
is  employed.  The  open  vowel  sounds  are  those  which  are  the  most  easily 
protracted,  yet  they  often  occur  in  the  shortest  and  feeblest  syllables. 

OBS.  2. — Most  monosyllables  are  variable,  and  may  be  made  either  long 
or  short,  as  suits  the  rhythm.  In  words  of  greater  length,  the  accented  syl- 
lable is  always  long ;  and  a  syllable  immediately  before  or  after  that  which  la 
accented,  is  always  short. 

Rhyme  is  a  similarity  of  sound,  between  the  last  syllables  of 
different  lines.  Blank  verse  is  verse  without  rhyme. 

OBS. — The  principal  rhyming  syllables  are  almost  always  long.  Double 
rhyme  adds  one  short  syllable;  triple  rhyme,  two.  Such  syllables  are  re- 
dundant hi  iambic  and  anapajstic  verses. 

POETIC  FEET. 

A  line  of  poetry  consists  of  successive  combina*\ons  of  sylla- 
bles, called^.  A  poetic  foot  consists  either  of  two  or  of  three 
syllables. 


236  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

The  principal  English  feet  are  the  Iambus,  the  Trochee,  the 
Anap&sl,  and  the  Dactyl. 

1.  The  Iambus  is  a  poetic  foot  consisting  of  a  short  syllable 
and  a  long  one  ;  as  betray,  confess. 

2.  The  Trochee  is  a  poetic  foot  consisting  of  a  long  syllable 
and  a  short  one  ;  as,  hateful,  pettish. 

3.  The  Ancup&st  is  a  poetic  foot  consisting  of  two  short  syl- 
lables and  one  long  one  ;  as,  contravene,  acquiesce. 

4.  The  Dactyl  is  a  poetic  foot  consisting  of  one  long  syllable 
and  two  short  ones  ;  as,  labourer,  possible. 

We  have,  accordingly,  four  kinds  of  verse,  or  poetic  mea- 
sure ;  Iambic,  Trochaic,  Anapaestic,  and  Dactylic. 

OBS. — The  more  pure  these  several  kinds  are  preserved,  the  more  com- 
plete is  the  chime  of  the  verse.  But  poets  generally  indulge  some  va- 
riety;  not  so  much,  however,  as  to  confound  the  drift  of  the  rhythmical  pul- 
sations. 

SCANNING. 

Scanning  is  the  dividing  of  verses  into  the  feet  which  com- 
pose them. 

OBS. — When  a  syllable  is  wanting,  the  verse  is  said  to  be  catalectic ;  when 
the  measure  is  exact,  the  line  is  acatalectic ;  when  there  is  a  redundant  syl- 
lable, it  forms  hypermeter. 

I.  OF  IAMBIC  VERSE. 

In  Iambic  verse,  the  stress  is  laid  on  the  even  syllables.  It 
consists  of  the  following  measures: 

1.  Iambic  of  Seven  feet,  or  Heptameter. 

The    Lord   |  descended   from  |  above,  |  and  bow'd  |   the 
heaVjens  high. 

Modern  poets  have  divided  this  kind  of  verse,  into  alternate 
lines  of  four  and  of  three  feet :  thus, 

O  blind  j  to  each  |  mdul|gent  aim 

Of  pow'r  |  supreme ]  ly  wise, 
Who  fan|cy  hap  |  pi  ness  |  in  aught 

The  hand  |  of  heav'n  |  denies ! 

2.  Iambic  of  Six  feet,  or  Hexameter. 
Thy  realm  |  forev|er  lasts,  |  thy  own  |  Messl|ah  reigns. 

This  is  the  Alexandrine ;  it  is  seldom  used  except  to  complete 
a  stanza  in  an  ode,  or  occasionally  to  close  a  period  in  heroic 
rhyme.  French  heroics  are  similar  to  this. 

3.  Iambic  of  Five  feet,  or  Pentameter. 

For  praise  |  too  dear|ly  lov'd  |  or  warmjly  sought, 
Enfee|bles  all  |  internal  strength  [  of  thought 


PROSODY. VERSIFICATION,  237 

With  sOljemn  ad|6ra|ti6n  down  |  they  cast 
Their  crowns  |  inwove  |  with  am|arant  |  and  gold. 

This  is  the  regular  English  heroic.  It  is,  perhaps,  the  only 
measure  suitable  for  blank  verse. 

The  Elegiac  Stanza  consists  of  four  heroics  rhyming  alter- 
nately ;  as, 

Enough  |  has  Heav'n  |  indulged  I  of  joy  |  below, 
To  tempt  |  our  tar|riance  in  I  mis  lov'd  |  retreat ; 

Enough  i  has  Heav'n  |  ordain' a  \  of  use|ful  wo, 
To  make  |  us  lang|uish  for  |  a  hap|pier  seat 

4.  Iambic  of  Four  feet,  or  Tetrameter. 

The  joys  |  above  |  are  understood 
And  rel|ish'd  on|ly  by  |  the  good. 

5.  Iambic  of  Three  feet. 
Blue  light|nings  tinge  |  the  wave, 
And  thun|der  rends  |  the  rock. 

6.  Iambic  of  Two  feet. 

Their  love  |  and  awe 
Supply  |  the  law. 

7.  Iambic  of  One  foot 

Hdw  bright, 
The  light  1 

Lines  of  fewer  than  seven  syllables  are  seldom  found,  except 
in  connection  with  longer  verses. 

In  iambic  verse,  the  first  foot  is  often  varied,  by  introducing 
a  trochee ;  as, 

Planets  \  and  sans  |  run  lawjless  through  |  the  sk?. 

By  a  synaeresis  of  the  two  short  syllables,  an  anapaest  may 
sometimes  be  employed  for  an  iambus ;  or  a  dactyl,  for  a  tro 
chee:  as, 

Oe*r  ma.\ny  d  fro|zen,  ma]ny  d  f  i|'ry  alp. 
II.  OF  TROCHAIC  VERSE. 

In  Trochaic  verse,  the  stress  is  laid  on  the  odd  syllables. 
Single-rhymed  trochaic  omits  the  final  short  syllable,  that  it 
may  end  with  a  long  one.  This  kind  of  verse  is  the  same  as 
iambic  without  the  initial  short  syllable.  Iambics  and  trochaics 
often  occur  in  the  same  poem. 

1.  Trochaic  of  Six  feet 

On  a  |  mountain  I  stretch'd  be|neath  a  |  hoarj-  |  wllldw. 
Lay  a  |  shepherd  ]  swain,  and  |  viewM  the  |  rolling  |  billow 


238  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

2.  Trochaic  of  Five  feet. 

Virtue's  |  bright'nlng  |  ray  shall  |  beam  f6r  |  fiver. 
Single  Rhyme. 

Idle  |  after  |  dinner,  |  In  his  |  chair, 
Sat  a  |  farmer  |  ruddy  |  fat  and  |  fair. 

3.  Trochaic  of  Four  feet. 

Round  a  |  holy  |  calm  dif  |fasmg, 
Love  of  |  peace  and  |  lonely  |  musing. 

Single  Rhyme. 

Restless  |  mortals  |  toil  for  ]  naught ; 
Bliss  in  |  vain  from  |  earth  is  |  sought. 

4.  Trochaic  of  Three  feet. 
When  our  |  hearts  are  |  mourning. 

Single  Rhyme. 

In  the  |  days  Of  I  old, 
Stories  |  plainly  |  told — 

5.  Trochaic  of  Two  feet. 

Fancy  |  viewing 
Joys  en | suing. 

Single  Rhyme. 

Tumult  I  cease, 
Sink  to  I  peace. 

6.  Trochaic  of  One  foot. 

Changing, 
Ranging. 

III.  OF  ANAP^STIC  VERSE. 

In  Anapaestic  verse  the  stress  is  laid  on  every  third  syllable. 
The  first  foot  of  an  anapaestic  line,  may  be  an  iambus. 

1.  Anapaestic  of  Four  feet 

At  the  close  |  of  the  day  |  when  the  ham|let  is  still, 
And  fli0r|tals  the  sweets  |  of  forgetjfulness  prove. 

2.  Anapaestic  of  Three  feet. 
I  am  m  On  |  arch  of  all  |  I  survey  ; 
Ny  right  \  there  is  none  |  to  dispute. 

3.  Anapaestic  of  Two  feet 

When  I  look  |  on  my  boys, 
They  renew  |  all  my  joys. 


PROSODY. PAUSING.  239 

4.  Anapaestic  of  One  foot 
On  the  land 
Let  me  stand. 

IV.-    OF  DACTYLIC  VERSE. 

In  pure  Dactylic  verse,  the  stress  is  laid  on  the  first,  tlie 
fourth,  the  seventh,  and  the  tenth  syllable.  Full  dactylic  gen- 
erally forms  triple  rhyme.  When  one  of  the  final  short  sylla- 
bles is  omitted,  the  rhyme  is  double  ;  when  both,  single.  Dac- 
tylic with  single  rhyme,  is  the  same  as  anapaestic  without  its 
initial  short  syllables.  Dacty  lie  measure  is  uncommon ;  and, 
when  employed,  is  seldom  perfectly  regular. 

1.  Dactylic  of  Four  feet 

Boys  will  anticipate,  |  lavish,  and  |  dissipate 
All  that  your  |  busy  pate  |  hoarded  with  |  care ; 

And,  in  their  |  foolishness,  |  passion,  and  |  mulishnesa, 
Charge  you  with  |  churlishness,  |  spurning  your  j  prayer. 

2.  Dactylic  of  Three  feet. 

Ever  sing  |  merrily,  |  merrily 

3.  Dactylic  of  Two  feet 
Free  from  sa|tiety, 
Care,  and  anx|iety, 
Charms  in  va|riety, 
Fall  to  his  |  share. 

4.  Dactylic  of  One  foot 

Fearfully, 
Tearfully. 

EXAMPLES  FOR  PARSING. 

CHAPTER  IX.— PROSODICAL. 

In  the  Ninth  Chapter,  are  exemplified  the  several  Fig- 
ures of  Etymology,  of  Syntax,  and  of  Rhetoric  ;  and 
by  it  the  pupil  may  also  be  exercised  in  relation  to 
the  principles  of  Punctuation,  Utterance,  and  Ver- 
sification. 

LESSON  I.— FIGURES  OF  ETYMOLOGY. 

APIIJERJCSIS,  PROSTHESIS,  SYNCOPE,  APOCOPE,    PARAGOGE,   DIJERBili, 
SYN.ERESIS,  AND   TMESIS. 

Bend  'gainst  the  steepy  hill  thy  breast, 
Burst  down  like  torrent  from  its  crest. — Scott. 

}Tis  mine  to  teach  tW  inactive  hand  to  reap 

Kind  nature's  bounties,  o'er  the  globe  diffused. — Dytr. 


$40  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Alas !  alas !  how  impotently  true 

ThJ  aerial  pencil  forms  the  scene  anew. — Cawthorne. 

Here  a  deformed  monster  jojfA  to  won, 
Which  on  fell  rancour  ever  was  ybent. — Lloyd. 

Withouten  trump  was  proclamation  made. — Thomson. 

The  gentle  knight,  who  saw  their  rueful  case, 
Let  fall  adown  his  silver  beard  some  tears. 
Certes,'  quoth  he, 4  it  is  not  e'en  in  grace, 
P  undo  the  past  and  eke  your  broken  years.' — Id. 

Vain  tampering  has  'butfoster'd  his  disease ; 

Tis  desyf'r&ee,  and  he  sleeps  the  sleep  of  death. — Cowper. 

I  have  a  psin  upon  my  forehead  here 

Why  thafs  with  watching  ;  'tuitt  away  again. — Shakspeare. 

I'll  to  the  woods,  among  the  happier  brutes  ; 

Come,  leffs  away  ;  hark  !  the  shrill  horn  resounds. — Snath. 

What  prayer  a?*!  supplication  soever  be  made. — Bible. 

By  the  grace  of  God  we  have  had  our  conversation  in  th» 
World,  and  more  abundantly  to  you  ward. — Ib. 

LESSON  n.— FIGURES  OF  SYNTAX. 
FIGURE   I. ELLIPSIS. 

And  now  he  family  kens  the  bounding  fawn, 

And  [ — ]  villager  [ — ]  abroad  at  early  toil. — Beattie. 

The  cottage  curs  at  [ — ]  early  pilgrim  bark. — Id. 

'Tis  granted,  and  no  plainer  truth  appears, 

Our  most  important  [ — ]  are  our  earliest  years. — Cmoper. 

To  earn  her  aid,  with  fix'd  and  anxious  eye, 

He  looks  on  nature's  [ — ]  and  on  fortune's  course  ; 

Too  much  in  vain. — Akenside. 

True  dignity  is  his,  whose  tranquil  mind 

Virtue  has  rais'd  above  the  things  [ — ]  below ; 

Who,  ev'ry  hope  and  [ — ]  fear  to  Heav'n  resigned, 

Shrinks  not,  though  Fortune  aim  her  deadliest  blow. — Beattie. 

For  longer  in  that  paradise  to  dwell, 

The  law  [ — ]  I  gave  to  nature,  him  forbids. — Milton. 

So  little  mercy  shows  [ — ]  who  needs  so  much. — Cowper. 

Bliss  is  the  same  [ — ]  in  subject,  as  [ — ]  in  king  ; 

la  [ — ]  who  obtain  defence,  and  [ — ]  who  defend. — Pope. 


PROSODY. — PARSING.  241 

Man  made  for  kings !  those  optics  are  but  dim 

That  tell  you  so — say  rather,  they  [ — ]  for  him. — Cowpcr. 

Man  may  dismiss  compassion  from  his  heart, 
But  God  will  never  [ ]. — Id. 

Mortals  whose  pleasures  are  their  only  care, 

First  wish  to  be  impos'd  on,  and  then  are  [ — ]. — Id. 

Vigour  [ — ]  from  toil,  from  trouble  patience  grows. — Seattle. 

Where  now  the  rill  melodious,  [— ]  pure,  and  cool, 

And  meads,  with  life,  and  mirth,  and  beauty  crown'd? — Id. 

How  dead  the  vegetable  kingdom  lies  ! 

How  dumb  the  tuneful  [ ]  ! — Thomson. 

Self-love  and  Reason  to  one  end  aspire, 

Pain  [ — ]  their  aversion,  pleasure  [ — ]  their  desire  ; 

But  greedy  that  its  object  would  devour, 

This  [ — ]  taste  the  honey,  and  not  wound  the  flower. — Pope. 

LESSON  III.— FIGURES  OP  SYNTAX. 
FIGURE   H. PLEONASM. 

According  to  their  deeds,  accordingly  he  will  repay ;  fury 
to  his  adversaries,  recompense  to  his  enemies. — Bible. 

My  head  is  filled  with  dew,  and  my  locks  with  the  drops  of  ih& 
night. — Solomoris  Song,  v.  2. 

Thou  hast  chastised  me,  and  I  was  chastised,  as  a  bullock 
unaccustomed  to  the  yoke  :  turn  thou  me,  and  I  shall  be  turned ; 
for  thou  art  the  Lord  my  God. — Jer.  xxxi.  18. 

Consider  the  lilies  of  che  field  how  they  grow. — Mat.  vi.  28. 
He  that  glorieth,  let  him  glory  in  the  Lord. — 2  Cor.  x.  17. 

He  too  is  witness,  noblest  of  the  train 

That  wait  on  man,  the  flight-performing  horse. — Cowper. 

FIGURE  m. SYLLEPSIS. 

<  Thou  art  Simon  the  son  of  Jona :  thou  shalt  be  called 
Cephas  f  which  is,  by  interpretation,  a  stone. — John,  i.  42. 

Thus  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts  :  '  Behold  I  will  break  the  bow 
of  Elam,  the  chief  of  their  might.' — Jer.  xlix.  35. 

Behold  I  lay  in  Zion  a  stumbling-stone  and  rock  of  offence ; 
and  whosoever  believeth  on  him  shall  not  be  ashamed. — Rom. 
it.  33. 

Thus  Conscience  pleads  her  cause  within  the  breast, 
Though  long  rebefl'd  against,  not  yet  suppress'd. — 
21 


242  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.. 

Knowledge  is  proud  that  he  has  learned  so  much  ; 
Wisdom  is  humble  that  he  knows  no  more. — Id. 

For  those  the  race  of  Israel  oft  forsook 
Their  living  strength,  and  unfrequented  left 
His  righteous  altar,  bowing  lowly  down 
To  bestial  gods. — Milton. 

LESSON  IV.— FIGURES  OP  SYNTAX. 
FIGURE   IV. ENALLAGE. 

Let  me  tell  you,  Cassius,  you  yourself 

Are  much  condemned  to  have  an  itching  palm, 

To  sell  and  mart  your  offices  for  gold. — Shakspcare. 

Come,  Phi  'omelus  ;  let  us  instant  go, 

O'erturn  his  bow'rs,  and  lay  his  castle  low. — Thomson. 

Then  palaces  shall  rise  ;  the  joyful  con 

Shall  finish  what  the  short-liv'd  sire  begun. — Pope. 

Such  was  that  temple  built  by  Solomon, 

Than  whom  none  richer  reign'd  o'er  Israel. — Au. 

He  spoke :  with  fatal  eagerness  we  burn, 

And  quit  the  shores,  undestin'd  to  return. — Day. 

Still  as  he  pass'd,  the  nations  he  sublimes. — Thomson. 
Sometimes,  with  early  morn,  he  mounted  gay. — Id. 

FIGURE   V. HYPERBATON. 

Such  resting  found  the  sole  of  unblest  feet. — Milton. 
Yet,  though  successless,  will  the  toil  delight. — Tfiomson. 

Where,  'midst  the  changeful  scen'ry  ever  new, 
Fancy  a  thousand  wondrous  forms  descries. — Beattic. 

Yet  so  much  bounty  is  in  God,  such  grace, 
That  who  advance  his  glory,  not  their  own, 
Them  he  himself  to  glory  will  advance. — MUton. 

But  apt  the  mind  or  fancy  is  to  rove 
Uncheck'd,  and  of  her  roving  is  no  end. — Id. 

No  quick  reply  to  dubious  questions  make  ; 
Suspense  and  caution  still  prevent  mistake. — Denham. 

LESSON  V.— -FIGURES  OF  RHETORIC. 

FIGURE    I. SIMILE. 

Human  greatness  is  short  and  transitory,  as  the  odour  of  in- 
cense  in  the  fare. — Dr.  Johnson. 


PROSODY.— >?ARSINO.  243 

Terrestrial  happiness  is  of  short  continuance  :  the  brightness 
of  the  flame  is  wasting  its  fuel,  the  fragrant  flower  is  passing  away 
in  its  own  odours. — Id. 

Thy  nod  is  as  the  earthquake  that  shakes  the  mountains  ;  and 
thy  smile,  as  the  dawn  of  the  vernal  day. — Id. 

Plants  raised  with  tenderness  are  seldom  strong ; 
Man's  coltish  disposition  asks  the  thong ; 
And  without  discipline,  the  fav'rite  child, 
Like  a  neglected  forester,  runs  wild. — Cowper. 

FIGURE  H. METAPHOR. 

Cathmon,  thy  name  is  a  pleasant  gale. — Ossian. 

Rolled  into  himself  he  flew,  wide  on  the  bosom  of  winds. 
The  old  oak  felt  his  departure,  and  shook  its  whistling  head. — Id. 

Carazan  gradually  lost  the  inclination  to  do  good,  as  he 
acquired  the  power  j  and  as  the  hand  of  time  scattered  snow 
upon  his  head,  the  freezing  influence  extended  to  his  bosom. — 
Hawkesworth. 

The  sun  grew  weary  of  gilding  the  palaces  of  Morad ;  the 
clouds  of  sorrow  gathered  round  his  head ;  and  the  tempest  of 
hatred  roared  about  his  dwelling. — Dr.  Johnson. 

The  tree  of  knowledge,  blasted  by  disputes, 
Produces  sapless  leaves  in  stead  of  fruits. — Denham. 

LESSON  VI.— FIGURES  OF  RHETORIC. 

FIGURE   in. ALLEGORY. 

44  But  what  think  ye  1 — A  certain  man  had  two  sons ;  and 
he  came  to  the  first,  and  said, <  Son,  go  work  to-day  in  my  vine- 
yard.' He  answered  and  said, c  I  will  not :'  but  afterward  he 
repented,  and  went.  And  he  came  to  the  second,  and  said  like- 
wise. And  he  answered  and  said,  *  I  go,  sir :'  and  went  not. 
Whether  of  them  twain  did  the  will  of  his  father?"  They  say 
into  him,  «  The  first."— Mat.  xxi.  28. 

FIGURE   IV. METONYMY. 

Swifter  than  a  whirlwind,  flies  the  leaden  death. — He-vey. 
1  Be  all  the  dead   forgot,'   said  Foldath's   bursting  wrath. 
Did  not  I  fail  in  the  field  ?'—  Ossian. 

Their  furrow  oft  the  stubborn  glebe  has  broke. — Gray. 

Firm  in  his  love,  resistless  in  his  hate, 

His  arm  is  conquest,  and  his  frown  is  fate. — Day. 

At  length  the  world,  renewM  by  calm  repose, 

Was  strong  for  toil ;  the  dappled  morn  arose. — ParnelL 


244  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

What  modes  of  sight  betwixt  each  wide  extreme, 

The  mole's  dim  curtain  and  the  lynx's  beam  ! 

Of  hearing  from  the  life  that  fills  the  flood, 

To  that  which  warbles  through  the  vernal  wood ! — Pope. 

FIGURE   V. SYNECDOCHE. 

!Twas  then  his  threshold  first  receiv'd  a  guest. — Parndl. 

For  yet  by  swains  alone  the  world  he  knew, 
Whose  feet  came  wand'ring  o'er  the  nightly  dew. — Id. 

Flush'd  by  the  spirit  of  the  genial  year, 

Now  from  the  virgin's  cheek  a  fresher  bloom 

Shoots,  less  and  less,  the  live  carnation  round. — Thomson. 

LESSON  VII.— FIGURES  OF  RHETORIC. 

FIGURE   VI. HYPERBOLE. 

I  saw  their  chief,  tall  as  a  rock  of  ice ;  his  spear,  the  blasted 
fir ;  his  shield  the  rising  moon ;  he  sat  on  the  shore,  like  a 
cloud  of  mist  on  the  hill. — Ossian. 

At  which  the  universal  host  up  sent 

A  shout  that  tore  Hell's  concave,  and  beyond 

Frighted  the  reign  of  Chaos  and  old  Night. — MUton. 

Will  all  great  Neptune's  ocean  wash  this  blood 
Clean  from  my  hand?  No  ;  this  my  hand  will  rather 
The  multitudinous  seas  incarnadine, 
Making  the  green  one  red. — Shakspeare. 

Endless  tears  flow  down  in  streams. — Swift. 

FIGURE   VII. VISION. 

How  mighty  is  their  defence  who  reverently  trust  in  the  arm 
cf  God  1  How  powerfully  do  they  contend  who  fight  with 
lawful  weapons !  Hark  !  'Tis  the  voice  of  eloquence,  pouring 
forth  the  living  energies  of  the  soul ;  pleading,  with  generous 
indignation,  the  cause  of  injured  humanity  against  lawless 
might,  and  reading  the  awful  destiny  that  awaits  the  oppressor! 
— I  see  the  stern  countenance  of  despotism  overawed !  I  see 
the  eye  fallen  that  kindled  the  elements  of  war !  I  see  the 
brow  relaxed  that  scowled  defiance  at  hostile  thousands  !  I  see 
the  knees  tremble  that  trod  with  firmness  the  embattled  field ! 
Fear  has  entered  that  heart  which  ambition  had  betrayed  into 
violence  !  The  tyrant  feels  himself  a  man,  and  subject  to  the 
weakness  of  humanity ! — Behold  !  and  tell  me,  is  that  powei 
contemptible  which  can  thus  find  access  to  the  sternest  hearts  ? — 
Author 


PROSODY. — PARSING.  246 

LESSON  VIIL— FIGURES  OP  RHETORIC. 

FIGURE   Vm. APOSTROPHE. 

Yet  still  they  breathe  destruction,  still  go  on 
Inhumanly  ingenious  to  find  out 
New  pains  for  life,  new  terrors  for  the  grave ; 
Artificers  of  death  !  Still  monarchs  dream 
Of  universal  empire  growing  up 
From  universal  ruin.     Blast  the  design, 
Great  God  of  Hosts  !  nor  let  thy  creatures  fall 
Unpitied  victims  at  Ambition1  s  shrine. — PorUus. 

FIGURE   IX. PERSONIFICATION. 

Hail,  sacred  Polity,  by  Freedom  rear'd ! 

Hail,  sacred  Freedom,  when  by  Law  restrained ! 

Without  you,  what  were  man  ?  A  grov'ling  herd, 

In  darkness,  wretchedness,  and  want  enchain'd. — Itai 

Let  cheerful  Memory,  from  her  purest  cells, 

Lead  forth  a  goodly  train  of  Virtues  fair, 

Cherish'd  in  early  youth,  now  paying  back 

With  tenfold  usury  the  pious  care. — PorUus. 

FIGURE  X. EROTESIS. 

He  that  chastiseth  the  heathen,  shall  not  he  correct  ?  he  that 
teacheth  man  knowledge,  shall  not  he  know? — Psal.  xciv.  10. 

Can  the  Ethiopian  change  his  skin,  or  the  leopard  his  spots  1 
then  may  ye  also  do  good,  that  are  accustomed  to  do  evil.— 
Jeremiah,  xiii.  23. 

FIGURE  XI. — ECPHONESIS. 

O  that  my  head  were  waters,  and  mine  eyes  a  fountain  of 
tears,  that  I  might  weep  day  and  night  for  the  slain  of  the 
daughter  of  my  people!  O  that  I  had  in  the  wilderness  a 
lodging  place  of  way-faring  men,  that  I  might  leave  my  people, 
and  go  from  them  ! — Jeremiah,  ix.  1. 

LESSON  IX.— FIGURES  OP  RHETORIC. 

FIGURE  XIL — ANTITHESIS. 

On  this  side  modesty  is  engaged ;  on  that,  impudence :  on 
this,  chastity ;  on  that,  lewdness :  on  this,  integrity ;  on  that, 
fraud  :  on  this,  piety ;  on  that,  profaneness :  on  this,  constancy- 
en  that,  fickleness:  on  this,  honour;  on  that,  baseness:  on  this, 
moderation ;  on  that,  unbridled  passion. — Cicero. 

She,  from  the  rending  earth,  and  bursting  skies, 

Saw  gods  descend,  and  fiends  infernal  rise ; 

Here  fix'd  the  dreadful,  there  the  blest  abodes ; 

Fear  made  her  devils,  and  weak  hope  her  £ods. — Pope. 
21* 


246                                            ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 
FIGURE   Xm. CLIMAX. 

Virtuous  actions  are  necessarily  approved  by  the  awakened 
conscience ;  and  when  they  are  approved,  they  are  commended 
to  practice ;  and  when  they  are  practised,  they  become  easy ; 
and  when  they  become  easy,  they  afford  pleasure  ;  and  when 
they  afford  pleasure,  they  are  done  frequently  ;  and  when  they 
are  done  frequently,  they  are  confirmed  by  habit:  and  con- 
firmed habit  is  a  kind  of  second  nature. 

FIGURE  XTV. IRONY. 

And  it  came  to  pass  at  noon,  that  Elijah  mocked  them,  and 
said, c  Cry  aloud ;  for  he  is  a  god :  either  he  is  talking,  or  he 
is  pursuing,  or  he  is  in  [on]  a  journey,  or  peradventure  he 
deepeth,  and  must  be  awaked  1' — 1  Kings,  xviii.  27. 

Some  lead  a  life  unblamable  and  just, 
Their  own  dear  virtue  their  unshaken  trust ; 
They  never  sin — or  if  (as  all  offend) 
Some  trivial  slips  their  daily  walk  attend, 
The  poor  are  near  at  hand,  the  charge  is  small, 
A  slight  gratuity  atones  for  all. — Cowpcr. 


QUESTIONS  ON  PROSODY. 

LESSON  I. — PUNCTUATION. 

Of  what  docs  Prosody  treat  1 

What  is  Punctuation  1 

What  arc  the  principal  points,  or  marks  ? 

What  pauses  are  denoted  by  the  first  four  points  ? 

What  pauses  are  required  by  the  other  four  1 

What  is  the  general  use  of  the  comma  1 

How  many  rules  for  the  comma  are  there  7  and  what  are  their  heads  7 

What  says  Rule  1st  of  simple  sentences? — Rule  2d  of  simple  members? — 
Rule  3d  of  more  than  two  words? — Rule  4th  of  only  two  words? — Rule  5th 
of  words  in  pairs? — Rule  6th  of  words  put  absolute? — Rule  7th  of  words 
in  apposition? — Rule  8th  of  adjectives? — Rule  9th  offnite  verbs? — Rule 
10th  of  infinitives?— Rule  llth  of  participles?— Rule  12th  of  adverbs?— 
Rule  13th  of  conjunctions? — Rule  14th  of  prepositions? — Rule  15th  of  in* 
terjectiont? — Rule  16th  of  words  repeated? — Rule  17th  of  dependent  quota- 
tion? 

LISBON   II.— PUNCTUATION. 

How  many  and  what  exceptions  are  there  to  Rule  1st  for  the  comma  1 — to 
Rule  2d ?— to  Rule  3d!— to  Rule  4th  ?— to  Rule  5th 7— to  Rule  6th?— to 
Rule 7th?— to  Rule  8th  1— to  Rule  9th?— to  Rule  10th?— to  Rule  llth?-- 
to  Rule  12th?— to  Rule  13th?— to  Rule  14th?  -to  Rule  15th?— to  Rule 
16th?— to  Rule  17th? 

When  are  different  words  said  to  be  in  the  same  construction? 


PROSODY. QUESTIONS. 


LESSON   III.-— PUNCTUATION. 


247 


What  is  the  general  use  of  the  semicolon  7 

How  many  rules  are  there  for  the  semicolon  1  and  what  are  their  heads  7 

What  says  Rule  1st  of  compound  members? — Rule  2d  of  simple  member  ft 

— Rule  3d  of  icords  in  apposition  ? 
What  is  the  general  use  of  the  colon  7 

How  many  rules  are  there  for  the  colon  7  and  what  are  their  heads  ? 
What  says  Rule  1st  of  additional  remarks  ?— -  Rule  2d  of  greater  pauses?- 

Rule  3d  of  independent  quotations? 
What  is  the  general  use  of  the  period  7 

How  many  rules  are  there  for  the  period  7  and  what  are  their  heads  7 
What  says  Rule  1st  of  distinct  sentences? — Rule  2d  of  allied  sentences?- 

Rule  3d  of  abbreviations? 

LESSON   IV. — PUNCTUATION. 

What  is  the  use  of  the  dash  7 

How  many  rules  are  there  for  the  dash  7  and  what  arc  their  heads  7 

\\hat  says  Rule  1st  of  abrupt  pauses? — Rule  2d  of  emphatic  pauses? 

What  is  the  use  of  the  note  of  interrogation  7 

How  many  rules  are  there  for  it  7  and  what  are  their  heads  7 

What  says  Rule  1st  of  questions  direct? — Rule  2d  of  questions  united  ?~ 

Rule  3d  of  questions  indirect  ? 
What  is  the  use  of  the  note  of  exclamation  7 
How  many  rules  are  there  for  it  7  and  what  are  their  heads  7 
What  says  Rule  1st  of  interjections  ? — Rule  2d  of  invocations  ? — Rule  3d  <tf 

exclamatory  questions? 

LESSON   V. — PUNCTUATION. 

What  is  the  use  of  the  parenthesis  7 

How  many  rules  are  there  for  it  7  and  what  arc  their  heads  7 
What  says  Rule  1st  of  incidental  clauses? — Rule  2d  of included  points  ? 
What  is  said  about  other  marks  7 

What  is  the  use  of  the  apostrophe  7 — of  the  hyphen  7 — of  the  diaeresis  7 — 
of  the  acute  accent  7 — of  the  grave  accent  7 — of  the  circumflex  7 — of  the 
breve  7 — of  the  macron  7 — of  the  ellipsis  7 — of  the  caret  7 — of  the  brace? — 
of  the  section  7 — of  the  paragraph  7 — of  the  quotation  points  7 — of  the 
crotchets  7 — of  the  index  7 — of  the  asterisk,  the  obelisk,  the  double  dagger, 
and  the  parallel  7 

[Having  correctly  answered  the  foregoing  questions,  the  pupil  should  be 
taught  to  apply  what  he  has  learned ;  and,  for  this  purpose,  he  may  be  re- 
quired to  read  the  preface  to  this  volume,  or  a  portion  of  any  other  accu- 
rately pointed  book,  and  to  assign  a  reason  for  every  mark  he  finds.] 

LESSON   VI. — UTTERANCE. 

What  id  Utterance?  and  what  does  it  include  7 

What  is  pronunciation  7 — What  does  pronunciation  require  7 

What  are  the  just  powers  of  the  letters  7 

What  is  accent  7 — Is  every  word  accented  7 

Can  a  word  have  more  than  one  accent  7 

What  four  things  distinguish  the  elegant  speaker  7 

What  is  elocution  7 — What  does  elocution  require  7 

What  is  emphasis  7 

What  are  pauses  7  and  what  is  said  of  their  duration  7 

What  are  inflections  7 — What  is  called  the  rising  inflection  7— What  is  called 

the  falling  inflection  7 — How  are  these  inflections  exemplified  7 — How  ara 

they  used  in  asking  questions  7 
What  are  tones  7  and  why  do  they  deserve  particular  attention  1 


248  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

LESSON  VII. — FIGURES. 

What  is  a  Figure  in  grammar1? 

How  many  kinds  of  figures  are  there  7 

What  is  a  figure  of  etymology  1 

How  many  and  what  are  the  figures  of  etymology  1 

What  is  aphaeresis  7 — prosthesis  1 — syncope  1 — apocope  1 — paragoge  7— - 
diaeresis  1 — synseresis7 — tmesis  7 

What  is  a  figure  of  syntax  7 

How  many  and  what  are  the  figures  of  syntax  1 

What  is  ellipsis  in  grammar  1     Are  sentences  often  elliptical  1 

How  can  there  be  an  ellipsis  of  the  article! — the  noun 7 — the  adjective  7— 
the  pronoun  7 — the  verb  7 — the  participle  7 — the  adverb  7 — the  conjunc- 
tion 7 — the  preposition  7 — the  interjection  7 — a  clause  7 

What  is  pleonasm  7 — and  when  is  this  figure  allowable  7 

What  is  syllepsis  7 — enallage  7 — hyperbaton  7 — what  is  said  of  hyperba- 
ton  7 

LESSON  VIII. — FIGURES. 

What  is  a  figure  of  rhetoric  7 — What  name  have  such  figures  7 
Do  figures  of  rhetoric  often  occur  7 — On  what  are  they  founded  7 
How  many  and  what  are  the  principal  figures  of  rhetoric  7 
What  is  a  simile  7 — a  metaphor  7 — an  allegory  7 — a  metonymy  7 — synec- 
doche 7 — hyperbole  7 — vision  7 — apostrophe  7 — personification  7 — erotesis  1 
— ecphonesis  7 — antithesis  7 — climax  7 — irony  7 

LESSON   IX. — VERSIFICATION. 

What  is  Versification  ? — What  is  the  quantity  of  a  syllable  7 

How  is  quantity  denominated  7 — How  is  it  said  to  be  proportioned  7 

On  what  does  quantity  depend  7    and  what  sounds   are  the  most  cunty 

lengthened  7 

What  words  are  variable  in  quantity  7  and  what  syllables  are  fixed! 
What  is  rhyme  7— What  is  blank  verse  7 

Of  what  does  a  line  of  poetry  consist  7 — Of  what  does  a  foot  consist  ? 
What  are  the  principal  English  feet  7 
What  is  an  iambus  7 — a  trochee  7 — an  anapaest  7 — a  dactyl  7 
How  many  kinds  of  verse  have  we  7 
What  is  scanning  7 

LESSON   X.— VERSIFICATION. 

What  syllables  are  accented  in  an  iambic  line  7 
What  are  the  several  measures  of  iambic  verse  7 
What  syllables  are  accented  in  a  trochaic  line  7 
What  are  the  several  measures  of  trochaic  verse  7 
What  syllables  are  accented  in  an  anapaestic  line  7 
What  are  the  several  measures  of  anapaestic  verse  7 
What  syllables  are  acc*nted  in  a  dactylic  line  7 
What  are  the  several  measures  of  dactylic  verse  7 

[Now  parse  the  nine  lessons  of  the  Ninth  Chapter;   explaining  everl 
thing  of  which  the  teacher  may  demand  an  explanation.] 

EXERCISES  IN  PSOSOBY. 


what  is  required.] 


OSODY. EXERCISES.  249 

EXERCISE  I.— PUNCTUATION. 

Copy  the  following  sentences,  and  insert  the  COMMA  where  it  it 
requisite. 

Examples  under  Rule  1. 

The  dogmatist's  assurance  is  paramount  to  argument 
The  whole  course  of  his  argumentation  comes  to  nothing. 
The  fieldmouse  builds  her  garner  under  ground. 
Exc.  The  first  principles  of  almost  all  sciences  are  few. 
What  he  gave  rue  to  publish  was  but  a  small  part. 
To  remain  insensible  to  such  provocation  is  apathy. 
Miads  ashamed  of  poverty  would  be  proud  of  affluence. 

Under  Rule  2. 

I  was  eyes  to  the  blind  and  feet  was  I  to  the  lame. 
They  are  gone  but  the  remembrance  of  them  is  sweet. 
He  has  passed  it  is  likely  through  varieties  of  fortune, 
The  mind  though  free  has  a  governor  within  itself. 
They  I  doubt  not  oppose  the  bill  on  public  principles. 
Be  silent  be  grateful  and  adore. 

He  is  an  adept  in  language  who  always  speaks  the  truth 
The  race  is  not  to  the  swift  nor  the  battle  to  the  strong. 
Exc.  1.  He  that  has  far  to  go  should  not  hurry. 
Hobbes  believed  the  eternal  truths  which  he  opposed. 
Feeble  are  all  pleasures  in  which  the  heart  has  no  share 
Exc.  2.  A  good  name  is  better  than  precious  ointment. 
Thinkest  thou  that  duty  shall  have  dread  to  speak  ? 
The  spleen  is  seldom  felt  where  Flora  reigns. 

Under  Rule  3. 

The  city  army  court  espouse  my  cause. 
Wars  pestilences  and  diseases  are  terrible  instructors. 
Walk  daily  in  a  pleasant  airy  and  umbrageous  garden. 
Wit  spirits  faculties  but  make  it  worse. 
Men  wives  and  children  stare  cry  out  and  run. 

Under  Ruk  4. 

Hope  and  fear  are  essentials  in  religion. 
Praise  and  adoration  are  perfective  of  our  souls. 
We  know  bodies  and  their  properties  most  perfectly. 
Satisfy  yourselves  with  what  is  rational  and  attainable. 
Exc.  1.  God  will  rather  look  to  the  inward  motions  of  the  mind 

than  to  the  outward  form  of  the  body. 
Gentleness  is  unassuming  in  opinion  and  temperate  in  zeal. 
Exc.  2.  He  has  experienced  prosperity  and  adversity. 
All  sin  essentially  is  and  must  be  mortal, 


250  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Exc.  3.  One  person  is  chosen  chairman  or  moderator. 
Duration  or  time  is  measured  by  motion. 
The  governor  or  viceroy  is  chosen  annually. 
Exc.  4.  Reflection  reason  still  the  ties  improve. 
His  neat  plain  parlour  wants  our  modern  style. 

Under  Rule  5. 

I  inquired  and  rejected  consulted  and  deliberated. 
Seed-time  and  harvest  cold  and  heat  summer  and  winter  day 
and  night  shall  not  cease. 

EXERCISE  II.— PUNCTUATION. 

Copy  the  following  sentences^  and  insert  the  COMMA  where  it  is 

requisite. 

Under  Ride  6. 

The  night  being  dark  they  did  not  proceed. 

There  being  no  other  coach  we  had  no  alternative. 

Remember  my  son  that  human  life  is  the  journey  of  a  day. 

All  circumstances  considered  it  seems  right. 

He  that  overcometh  to  him  will  I  give  power. 

Your  land  strangers  devour  it  in  your  presence. 

Ah  sinful  nation  a  people  laden  with  iniquity ! 

With  heads  declin'd  ye  cedars  homage  pay ; 

Be  smooth  ye  rocks  ye  rapid  floods  give  way ! 

Under  Rule  7. 

Now  Philomel  sweet  songstress  charms  the  night. 

'Tis  chanticleer  the  shepherd's  clock  announcing  day. 

The  evening  star  love's  harbinger  appears. 

The  queen  of  night  fair  Dian  smiles  serene. 

There  is  yet  one  man  Micaiah  the  son  of  Imlah. 

Our  whole  company  man  by  man  ventured  down, 

As  a  work  of  wit  the  Dunciad  has  few  equals. 
In  the  same  temple  the  resounding  wood 
All  vocal  beings  hymned  their  equal  God. 

Exc.  1.  The  last  king  of  Rome  was  Tarquinius  Superbiua. 

Bossuet  highly  eulogizes  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria. 

Exc.  2.  For  he  went  and  dwelt  by  the  brook  Cherith. 

Remember  the  example  of  the  patriarch  Joseph. 

Exc.  3.  I  wisdom  dwell  with  prudence. 

Ye  fools  be  ye  of  an  understanding  heart. 

I  tell  you  that  which  you  yourselves  do  know. 

Exc.  4.  I  crown  thee  king  of  intimate  delights. 

I  count  the  world  a  stranger  for  thy  sake. 


PROSODY. EXERCISES.  251 

And  this  makes  friends  such  miracles  below. 
God  has  pronounced  it  death  to  taste  that  tree. 
Grace  makes  the  slave  a  freeman. 

Under  Ride  8. 

Deaf  with  the  noise  I  took  my  hasty  flight 

Him  piteous  of  his  youth  soft  disengage. 

I  played  a  while  ooedient  to  the  fair. 

Love  free  as  air  spreads  his  light  wings  and  flies. 

Then  active  still  and  uncon fined  his  mind 

Explores  the  vast  extent  of  ages  past. 

But  there  is  yet  a  liberty  unsung 

By  poets  and  by  senators  unpraised. 
Exc.  I  will  marry  a  wife  beautiful  as  the  Houries. 
He  was  a  man  able  to  speak  upon  doubtful  questions. 
These  are  the  persons  anxious  for  the  change. 
Are  they  men  worthy  of  confidence  and  support  ? 

Under  Rule  3. 

Poverty  wants  some  things — avarice  all  things. 

Honesty  has  one  face — flattery  two. 

One  king  is  too  soft  and  easy — an  other  too  fiery. 

Mankind's  esteem  they  court — and  he  his  own  : 

Theirs  the  wild  chase  of  false  felicities  ; 

His  the  compos' d  possession  of  the  true. 

EXERCISE  III.— PUNCTUATION. 

Copy  the  following  sentences,  and  insert  the  COMMA  where  it  w 
requisite. 

Under  Ruk  10. 

My  desire  is  to  live  in  peace. 

The  great  difficulty  was  to  compel  them  to  pay  their  debts. 

To  strengthen  our  virtue  God  bids  us  trust  in  him. 

I  made  no  bargain  with  you  to  live  always  drudging. 

To  sum  up  all  her  tongue  confessed  the  shrew. 

To  proceed  my  own  adventure  was  still  more  laughable, 
We  come  not  with  design  of  wasteful  prey 
To  drive  the  country  °orce  the  swains  away. 

Undth  Rule  11. 

Having  given  this  answer  he  departed. 

Some  sunk  to  beasts  find  pleasure  end  in  pain. 

Eased  of  her  load  subjection  grows  more  light. 

Death  still  draws  nearer  never  seeming  near. 

He  lies  full  low  gored  with  wounds  and  weltering  in  his  blood. 


252  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Kind  is  fell  Lucifer  compared  to  thee. 
Man  considered  in  himself  is  helpless  a^nd  wretched. 
Like  scattered  down  by  howling  Eurus  blown. 
He  with  wide  nostrils  snorting  skims  the  wave. 
Youth  is  properly  speaking  introductory  to  manhood. 
Exc.  He  kept  his  eye  fixed  on  the  country  before  him. 
They  have  their  part  assigned  them  to  act. 
fears  will  not  repair  the  injuries  done  by  him. 

Under  Rub  12. 

Y es  we  both  were  philosophers. 

However  providence  saw  fit  to  cross  our  design. 

Besides  I  know  that  the  eye  of  the  public  is  upon  me. 

The  fact  certainly  is  much  otherwise. 

For  nothing  surely  can  be  more  inconsistent. 

Under  Rule  13. 

For  in  such  retirement  the  soul  is  strengthened. 
It  engages  our  desires  ;  and  in  some  degree  satisfies  them. 
But  of  every  Christian  virtue  piety  is  an  essential  part 
The  English  verb  is  variable  ;  as  love  lovest  loves. 

Under  Rule  14. 

In  a  word  charity  is  the  soul  of  social  life. 
By  the  bowstring  I  can  repress  violence  and  fraud. 
Some  by  being  too  artful  forfeit  the  reputation  of  probity. 
With  regard  to  morality  I  was  not  indifferent. 

Under  Ruk  15. 

Lo  earth  receives  him  from  the  bending  skies ! 
Behold  I  am  against  thee  O  inhabitant  of  the  valley  I 

Under  Ruk  16. 

I  would  never  consent  never  never  never. 
His  teeth  did  chatter  chatter  chatter  still. 
Come  come  come  come — to  bed  to  bed  to  bed. 

Under  Rule  17. 

He  cried  '  Cause  every  man  to  go  out  from  me.J 
'  Almct'  said  he  l  remember  what  thou  hast  seen.1 
I  answered  {  Mock  not  thy  servant  who  is  but  a  worm  before 
thee.1 

EXERCISE  IV.— P'.NCTUATION. 

I.   Copy  the  following  sentences,  and  insert  the  comma  and  the, 
SEMICOLON  where  they  are  requisite. 

Under  Ruk  1. 

1  Man  is  weak'  answered  his  companion  { knowledge  is  more 
than  equivalent  to  force.' 


PROSODY. EXERCISES.  253 

To  judge  rightly  of  the  present  we  must  oppose  it  to  the  past 
for  all  judgment  is  comparative  and  of  the  future  nothing 
can  be  known. 

i  Content  is  natural  wealth5  says  Socrates  to  which  I  shall  add 
'  luxury  is  artificial  poverty.' 

Converse  and  love  mankind  might  strongly  draw 
When  love  was  liberty  and  nature  law. 

Under  Rule  2 

Be  wise  to-day  'tis  madness  to  defer. 

The  present  all  their  care  the  future  his. 

Wit  makes  an  enterpriser  sense  a  man. 

Ask  thought  for  joy  grow  rich  and  hoard  within. 

Song  soothes  our  pains  and  age  has  pains  to  soothe. 

Here  an  enemy  encounters  there  a  rival  supplants  him. 

Our  answer  to  their  reasons  is  No  to  their  scoffs  nothing. 

Under  Rule  3. 
In  Latin  there  are  six  cases  namely  the  nominative  the  genitive 

the  dative  the  accusative  the  vocative  and  the  ablative. 
Most  English  nouns  form  the  plural  by  adding  s  as  boy  boy* 

nation  nations  king  kings  bay  bays. 
Bodies  are  such  as  are  endued  with  a  vegetable  soul  as  plants 

a  sensitive  soul  as  animals  or  a  rational  soul  as  the  body  of 

man. 

2.  Copy  the  following  sentences,  and  insert  the  comma^  the  semicolon^ 
and  the  COLON  where  they  are  requisite. 

Under  Rule  1. 

Death  wounds  to  ewe  we  fall  we  rise  we  reign. 
Bliss  ! — there  is  nono  but  unprecarious  bliss. 
That  is  the  gem  sell  iJl  and  purchase  that. 
Beware  of  usurpation  God  is  the  judge  of  all. 

Under  Rule  2. 

I  have  the  world  here  before  me  I  will  review  it  at  leisure 
surely  happiness  is  somewhere  to  be  found. 

A  melancholy  enthusiast  courts  persecution  and  when  he  can- 
not obtain  it  afflicts  himself  with  absurd  penances  but  the 
holiness  of  St.  Paul  consisted  in  the  simplicity  of  a  pious 
life. 

Observe  his  awful  portrait  and  admire 
Nor  stop  at  wonder  imitate  and  live. 

Under  Rule  3. 

Such  is  our  Lord's  injunction  "Watch  and  pray." 
22 


254  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

He  died  praying  for  his  persecutors  "  Father  forgive  them  they 

know  not  what  they  do." 
On  his  cane  was  inscribed  this  motto  "  Festina  knte." 

3.  Copy  the  following  sentences,  and  insert  the  comma,  the  semicolon^ 
the.  colon,  and  tJie  PERIOD  where  they  are  requisite. 

Under  Rule  1. 

Then  appeared  the  sea  ,  and  the  dry  landj.the  mountains  rose 
and  the  rivers  flowed,  the  sun  and  moo  A  began  their  course 
in  the  skies>  herbs  and  plants  clothed  the  ground,  the  am  the 
earth  and  the  waters  were  stored  with  their  respective  inhabi- 
tants^ last  man  was  made  in  the  image  of  God 

In  general  those  parents  have  most  reverence  who  most  deserve 
it  for  he  that  lives  well  cannot  be  despised 

Under  Ruk  2. 

Civil  accomplishments  frequently  give  rise  to  fame  but  a  dis- 
tinction is  to  be  made  between  fame  and  true  honour  the 
statesman  the  orator  or  the  poet  may  be  famous  while  yet 
the  man  himself  is  far  from  being  honoured 

Under  Ruk  3. 

Glass  was  invented  in  Eng  by  Benalt  a  monk  A  D  664 
The  Roman  Era  U  C  commenced  A  C  1753  years 
Here  is  the  Literary  Life  of  S  T  Coleridge  Essq 

EXERCISE  Y.— PUNCTUATION. 

1.    Copy  the  following  sentences,  and  insert  the  DASH,  and  such 
other  points  as  are  newssary. 

Under  Ruk  1, 
You  say  famous  very  often  and  I  don't  know  exactly  what  it 

means  a  famous  uniform  famous  doings  What  does  famous 

mean 
O  why  famous  means  Now  don't  you  know  what  famous  means 

It  means  It  is  a  word  that  people  say  It  is  the  fashion  to  say 

it  It  means  it  means  famous. 

Under  Ruk  2. 

But  this  life  is  not  all  there  is  there  is  full  surely  an  other 
state  abiding  us  And  if  there  is  what  is  thy  prospect  O  re- 
morseless obdurate  Thou  shalt  hear  it  would  be  thy  wisdom 
to  think  thou  now  hearest  the  sound  of  that  trumpet  which 
shall  awake  the  dead  Return  O  yet  return  to  the  Father  of 
mercies  and  live 

The  future  pleases  Why  The  present  pains 
Bu*  that's  a  secret  yes  which  all  men  know 


PROSODY. EXERCISES.  255 

2.  Copy  the  following  sentences,  and  insert  the  NOTE  OF  INTERRO- 

GATION, and  such  other  points  as  are  necessary. 

Under  Ride  1. 

Does  nature  bear  a  tyrant's  breast 
Is  she  the  friend  of  stern  control 
Wears  she  the  despot's  purple  vest 
Or  fetters  she  the  free-born  soul 
Why  should  a  man  whose  blood  is  warm  within 
Sit  like  his  grandsire  cut  in  alabaster 
Who  art  thou  courteous  stranger  and  from  whence 
Why  roam  thy  steps  to  this  abandon'd  dale 

Under  Rule  2. 

Who  bid  the  stork  Columbus-like  explore 
Heavens  not  his  own  and  worlds  unknown  before 
Who  calls  the  council  states  the  certain  day 
Who  forms  the  phalanx  and  who  points  the  way 

Under  Rule  3. 

Ask  of  thy  mother  Earth  why  oaks  are  made 
Taller  and  stronger  than  the  weeds  they  shade 
They  asked  me  who  I  was  and  whither  I  was  going 

3.  Copy  the  following  sentences,  and  insert  the  NOTE  OP  EXCLAMA- 

TION, and  such  other  points  as  are  necessary. 

Under  Rule  1. 

Alas  how  is  that  rugged  heart  forlorn 
Behold  the  victor  vanquished  by  the  worm 
Bliss  sublunary  bliss  proud  words  and  \ain 

Under  Rule  2. 

0  Popular  Applause  what  heart  of  man 

Is  proof  against  thy  sweet  seducing  charms 
More  than  thy  balm  O  Gilead  heals  the  wound 
Under  Rule  3. 

How  often  have  I  loitered  o'er  thy  green 
Where  humble  happiness  endear'd  each  scene 
What  black  despair  what  horror  fills  his  heart 

1  Copy  the  following  sentences,  and  insert  the  PARENTHESIS,  and 

such  other  points  as  are  necessary. 

Under  Ruk  1. 

And  all  the  question  wrangle  e'er  so  long 
Is  only  this  If  God  has  placed  him  wrong 


256  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

And  who  what  god  foretells  who  speaks  in  things 
Still  louder  than  in  words  shall  dare  deny 

Under  Rule  2. 

Say  was  it  virtue  more  though  Heav'n  ne'er  gave 
Lamented  Digby  sunk  thee  to  the  grave 

Where  is  that  thrift  that  avarice  of  time 

0  glorious  avarice  thought  of  death  inspires 

And  oh  the  last  last  what  can  words  express 
Thought  reach  the  last  last  silence  of  a  friend 

EXERCISE  YL— PUNCTUATION. 

Copy  the  following  PROMISCUOUS  sentences •,  and  insert  iht  points 
which  they  require. 

As  one  of  them  opened  his  sack  he  espied  his  money 

They  cried  out  the  more  exceedingly  Crucify  him 

The  soldiers'  counsel  was  to  kill  the  prisoners 

Great  injury  these  vermin  mice  and  rats  do  in  the  field 

It  is  my  son's  coat  an  evil  beast  hath  devoured  him 

Peace  of  all  worldly  blessings  is  the  most  valuable 

By  this  time  the  very  foundation  was  removed 

The  only  words  he  uttered  were  I  am  a  Roman  citizen 

Some  distress  either  felt  or  feared  gnaws  like  a  worm 

How  then  must  I  determine  Have  I  no  interest  If  I  have  not  I 

am  stationed  here  to  no  purpose  Harris 

In  the  fire  the  destruction  was  so  swift  sudden  vast  and  miser- 
able as  to  have  no  parallel  in  story 
Dionysius  the  tyrant  of  Sicily  was  far  from  being  happy 

1  ask  now  Verres  what  thou  hast  to  advance 
Excess  began  and  sloth  sustains  the  trade 
Fame  can  never  reconcile  a  man  to  a  death  bed 
They  that  sail  on  the  sea  tell  of  the  danger 

Be  doers  of  the  word  and  not  hearers  only 

The  storms  of  wint'ry  time  will  quickly  pass 

Here  hope  that  smiling  angel  stands 

Disguise  I  see  thou  art  a  wickedness 

There  are  no  tricks  in  plain  and  simple  faith 

True  love  strikes  root  in  reason  passion's  foe 

Two  gods  divide  them  all  Pleasure  and  Gain 

I  am  satisfied  My  son  has  done  his  duty 

Remember  Almet  the  vision  which  thou  hast  seen 

I  beheld  an  enclosure  beautiful  as  the  gardens  of  paradise 

The  knowledge  which  I  have  received  I  will  communicate 

But  I  am  not  yet  happy  and  therefore  I  despair 

Wretched  mortals  said  I  to  what  purpose  are  you  busy 


PROSODY. — EXERCISES.  257 

Bad  as  the  world  is  respect  is  always  paid  to  virtue 

In  a  word  he  views  men  in  the  clear  sunshine  of  charity 

This  being  the  case  I  am  astonished  and  amazed 

These  men  approached  him  and  saluted  him  king 

Excellent  and  obliging  sages  these  undoubtedly 

Yet  at  the  same  time  the  man  himself  undergoes  a  change 

One  constant  effect  of  idleness  is  to  nourish  the  passions 

You  heroes  regard  nothing  but  glory 

Take  care  lest  while  you  strive  to  reach  the  top  you  fall 

Proud  and  presumptuous  they  can  brook  no  opposition 

Nay  some  awe  of  religion  may  still  subsist 

Then  said  he  Lo  I  come  to  do  thy  will  O  God 

As  for  me  behold  I  am  in  your  hand 

Now  I  Paul  myself  beseech  you 

He  who  lives  always  in  public  cannot  live  to  his  own  soul 

whereas  he  who  retires  remains  calm 
Therefore  behold  I  even  I  will  utterly  forget  you 
This  text  speaks  only  of  those  to  whom  it  speaks 
Yea  he  warmeth  himself  and  saith  Aha  I  am  warm 
King  Agrippa  believest  thou  the  prophets 

EXERCISE  VII— PUNCTUATION. 

Copy  the  following  PROMISCUOUS  sentences,  and  insert  the  points 
which  they  require. 

To  whom  can  riches  give  repute  or  trust 
Content  or  pleasure  but  the  good  and  just 
To  him  no  high  no  low  no  great  no  small 
He  fills  he  bounds  connects  and  equals  all 
Reason's  whole  pleasure  all  the  joys  of  sense 
Lie  in  three  words  health  peace  and  competence 
Not  so  for  onoe  indulg'd  they  sweep  the  main 
Deaf  to  the  call  or  hearing  hear  in  vain 
Say  will  *lie  falcon  stooping  from  above 
Smit  with  her  vaiying  plumage  spare  the  doTe 
Throw  Egypt's  by  and  offer  in  i^s  stead 
Offer  the  crown  on  Berenice's  head 
Falsely  luxurious  will  not  man  awake 
And  springing  from  the  bed  of  sloth  enjoy 
The  cool  the  fragrant  and  the  silent  hour 
Yet  thus  it  is  nor  otherwise  can  be 
So  far  from  aught  romantic  what  I  sing 
Thyself  first  know  then  love  a  self  there  is 
Of  virtue  fond  that  kindles  at  her  charms 
How  far  that  little  candle  throws  his  beams 
So  shines  a  good  deed  in  a  naughty  world 
You  have  too  much  respect  upon  the  world 

22* 


258  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR, 

They  lose  it  that  do  buy  it  with  much  care 
How  many  things  by  season  seasoned  are 
To  their  right  praise  and  true  perfection 
Canst  thou  descend  from  converse  with  the 
And  seize  thy  brothers  throat  for  what  a  clod 
In  two  short  precepts  all  your  business  lies 
Would  you  be  great  be  virtuous  and  be  wise, 
But  sometimes  virtue  starves  while  vice  is  fed 
What  then  is  the  reward  of  virtue  bread 
A  life  all  turbulence  and  noise  may  seem 
To  him  that  leads  it  wise  and  to  be  prais'd 
But  wisdom  is  a  pearl  with  most  success 
Sought  in  still  waters  and  beneath  clear  skies 
All  but  the  swellings  of  the  softened  heart 
That  waken  not  disturb  the  tranquil  mind 
Inspiring  God  who  boundless  spirit  all 
And  unremitting  energy  pervades 
Adjusts  sustains  and  agitates  the  whole 
Ye  ladies  for  indiif 'rent  in  your  cause 
I  should  deserve  to  forfeit  all  applause 
Whatever  shocks  or  gives  the  least  offence 
To  virtue  delicacy  truth  or  sense 
Try  the  criterion  'tis  a  faithful  guide 
Nor  has  nor  can  have  Scripture  on  its  side 

EXERCISE  VIIL— SCANNING. 

Divide  the  following  VERSES  into  the  feet  which  compose  them,  and 
distinguish  by  marks  the  long  and  the  short  syllables. 

DEITY. 

Alone  thou  sitst  above  the  everlasting  hills, 
And  all  immensity  of  space  thy  presence  fills ; 

For  thou  alone  art  God — as  God  thy  saints  adore  thee ; 

Jehovah  is  thy  name — they  have  no  gods  before  thee. 

HEALTH. 

Up  the  dewy  mountain,  Health  is  bounding  lightly ; 

On  her  brows  a  garland,  twin'd  with  richest  posies : 
Gay  is  she,  elate  with  hope,  and  smiling  sprightly ; 

Redder  is  her  cheek,  and  sweeter,  than  the  rose  is. 

IMPENITENCE. 

The  impenitent  sinner  whom  mercy  empowers, 
Dishonours  that  goodness  which  seeks  to  restore  j 

As  the  sands  of  the  desert  are  water'd  by  showers, 
Yet  barren  and  fruitless  remain  as  before. 


PROBODY. EXERCISES.  269 

PIETY. 

Holy  and  pure  are  the  pleasures  of  piety, 

Drawn  from  the  fountain  of  mercy  and  love ; 

Endless,  exhaustless,  exempt  from  satiety, 
Rising  unearthly,  and  soaring  above. 

A  SIMILE. 

The  bolt  that  strikes  the  tow'ring  cedar  dead 
Oft  passes  harmless  o'er  the  hazel's  head. 

AN   OTHER. 

Yet  to  their  gen'ral's  voice  they  soon  obey'd 

Innumerable.     As  when  the  potent  rod 

Of  Amram's  son,  in  Egypt's  evil  day, 

Wav'd  round  the  coast,  up  call'd  a  pitchy  cloud 

Of  locusts,  warping  on  the  eastern  wind, 

That  o'er  the  realm  of  impious  Pharaoh  hung 

Lake  night,  and  darken'd  all  the  land  of  Nile. — Milton. 

ELEGIAC    STANZA. 

Thy  name  is  dear — 'tis  virtue  balm'd  in  love  ; 
Yet  e'en  thy  name  a  pensive  sadness  brings. 
Ah  !  wo  the  day,  our  hearts  were  doom'd  to  prove, 
That  fondest  love  but  points  affliction's  stings ! 

CUPID. 

Zephyrs,  moving  bland,  and  breathing  fragrant 

With  the  sweetest  odours  of  the  spring, 
O'er  the  winged  boy,  a  thoughtless  vagrant, 

Slumb'ring  in  the  grove,  their  perfumes  fling. 

DIVINE   POWER. 

When  the  winds  o'er  Gennesaret  roar'd, 

And  the  billows  tremendously  rose, 
The  Saviour  but  utter'd  the  word, 

They  were  hush'd  to  the  calmest  repose. 

INVITATION. 
Come  from  the  mount  of  the  leopard,  spouse, 

Come  from  the  den  of  the  lion  ; 
Come  to  the  tent  of  thy  shepherd,  spouse, 

Come  to  the  mountain  of  Zion. 

ADMONITION. 

In  the  days  of  thy  youth, 

Remember  thy  God : 
O !  forsake  nor  his  truth, 

Incur  not  his  iod ! 


260  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

COMMENDATION. 

Constant  and  duteous, 

Meek  as  the  dove, 
How  art  thou  beauteous. 

Daughter  of  love ! 

EDWIN,  AN  ODE. 

I.    STROPHE. 

Led  by  the  pow'r  of  song,  and  nature's  love, 
Which  raise  the  soul  all  vulgar  themes  above, 
The  mountain  grove 
Would  Edwin  rove, 
In  pensive  mood  alone  ; 
And  seek  the  woody  dell, 
Where  noontide  shadows  fell, 
Cheering, 
Veering, 

Mov'd  by  the  zephyr's  swell. 
Here  nurs'd  he  thoughts  to  genius  only  known, 
When  nought  was  heard  around 
But  sooth'd  the  rest  profound 
Of  rural  beauty  on  her  mountain  throne. 
Nor  less  he  lov'd  (rude  nature's  child) 
The  elemental  conflict  wild  ; 
When,  fold  on  fold,  above  was  pil'd 
The  watery  swathe,  careering  on  the  wind. 
Such  scenes  he  saw 
With  solemn  awe, 

As  in  the  presence  of  th'  Eternal  mind. 
Fix'd  he  gaz'd, 
Tranc'd  and  rais'd, 
Sublimely  rapt  in  awful  pleasure  undefined- 

H.    ANTISTROPHE. 

Reckless  of  dainty  joys,  he  finds  delight 
Where  feebler  souls  but  tremble  with  affright. 
Lo  !  now,  within  the  deep  ravine, 
A  black  impending  cloud 
Infolds  him  in  its  shroud ; 
And  dark  and  darker  glooms  the  scene. 
Through  the  thicket  streaming, 
Lightnings  now  are  gleaming, 
Thunders  rolling  dread, 
Shake  the  mountain's  head 
Nature's  war 
Echoes  far, 
O'er  ether  borne. 


PROSODY. EXERCISES.  261 

That  flash 
The  ash 

Has  scath'd  and  torn ! 
Now  it  rages : 
Oaks  of  ages, 

Writhing  in  the  furious  blast, 
Wide  their  leafy  honours  cast ; 
Their  gnarled  arms  do  force  to  force  oppose : 
Deep  rooted  in  the  crevic'd  rock, 
The  sturdy  trunk  sustains  the  shock, 
Like  dauntless  hero  firm  against  assailing  foes. 

m.  EPODE. 

*  O  Thou  who  sits  above  these  vapours  dense, 
And  rul'st  the  storm  by  thine  omnipotence ! 
Making  the  collied  cloud  thy  car, 
Coursing  the  winds;  thou  rid'st  afar, 

Thy  blessings  to  dispense. 
The  early  and  the  latter  rain, 
Which  fertilize  the  dusty  plain, 

Thy  bounteous  goodness  pours. 
Dumb  be  the  atheist  tongue  abhorrM ! 
All  nature  owns  thee,  sovereign  Lord 

And  works  thy  gracious  will ; 
At  thy  command  the  tempest  roars, 

At  thy  command  is  still. 
Thy  mercy  o'er  this  scene  sublime  presides ; 
'Tis  mercy  forms  the  veil  that  hides 

The  ardent  solar  beam ; 
While,  from  the  volleyed  breast  of  heaven, 
Transient  gleams  of  dazzling  light, 
Flashing  on  the  balls  of  sight, 

Make  darkness  darker  seera. 
Thou  mov'st  the  quick  and  sulph'rous  loven — 
The  tempest-driven 

Cloud  is  riven ; 
And  the  thirsty  mountain  side 
Drinks  gladly  of  the  gushing  tide.' 
So  breath'd  young  Edwin,  when  the  summer  shower 
From  out  that  dark  o'erchamb'ring  cloud, 
With  lightning  flash  and  thunder  loud 
Burst  in  wild  grandeur  o'er  his  solitary  bower. — Author. 


THE   END  OP  PART  FOURT& 


KEY 

TO    THE 

EXAMPLES  OF  FALSE   CONSTRUCTION 

DESIGNED  FOR  ORAL  EXERCISES, 

UNDER 

THE  RULES  OF  SYNTAX  AND  THE  NOTES. 


3£jr  [THE  examples  of  False  Syntax  here  explained,  should  be  corrected 
orally  by  the  pupil,  according  to  the  formules  given  under  the  rules ;  and 
the  following  corrections  may  afterwards  be  used  as  examples  for  parsing, 
if  necessary.] 

RULE  L—ARTICLES. 
Note  1. 

This  is  a  hard  saying. 

An  humble  heart  shall  find  favour. 

Passing  from  an  earthly  to  a  heavenly  diadem. 

Few  have  the  happiness  of  living  with  such  a  one. 

She  evinced  a  uniform  adherence  to  the  truth. 

An  hospital  is  an  asylum  for  the  sick. 

This  is  truly  a  wonderful  invention. 

He  is  a  younger  man  than  we  supposed. 

A  humorsome  child  is  never  long  pleased. 

A  careless  man  is  unfit  for  an  hostler. 

Note  2. 

Avoid  rude  sports ;  an  eye  is  soon  lost,  or  a  bone  broken. 
As  the  drop  of  the  bucket,  and  the  dust  of  the  balance. 
Not  a  word  was  uttered,  nor  a  sign  given. 
I  despise  not  the  doer,  but  the  deed. 

Note  3. 

What  is  the  difference  between  the  old  and  the  new  method  4 

The  sixth  and  the  tenth  have  a  close  resemblance. 

Is  Paris  on  the  right  hand,  or  the  leftl 

Does  Peru  join  the  Atlantic,  or  the  Pacific  ocean  1 

He  was  influenced  both  by  a  just  and  a  generous  principle. 

The  book  was  read  by  the  old  and  the  young. 

I  have  both  the  large  and  the  small  grammar. 

Are  both  the  north  and  the  south  line  measured  1 

Are  the  north  line  and  the  south  both  measured  7 

Are  both  the  north  and  the  south  lines  measuredl 

Are  both  the  north  lines  and  the  south  measuredl 


KEY  TO   FALSE   SYNTAX  268 

Not*  4. 

IB  the  north  and  south  line  measured  1 

Are  the  two  north  and  south  lines  both  measured  ? 

A  great  and  good  man  looks  beyond  time. 

They  made  but  a  weak  and  ineffectual  resistance. 

The  Allegany  and  Monongahela  rivers  form  the  Ohio. 

I  rejoice  that  there  is  an  other  and  better  world. 

Were  God  to  raise  up  an  other  such  man  as  Moees. 

The  light  and  worthless  kernels  will  float. 

Note  5. 

Cleon  was  an  other  sort  of  man. 
There  is  a  species  of  animal  called  seal. 
Let  us  wait  in  patience  and  quietneM. 
The  contemplative  mind  delights  in  silence. 
Arithmetic  is  a  branch  of  mathematics. 
You  will  never  have  an  other  such  chance. 
I  expected  some  such  answer. 
And  I  persecuted  this  way  unto  death. 

Not*  6. 

He  is  entitled  to  the  appellation  of  gentleman. 
Cromwell  assumed  the  title  of  Protector. 
Her  father  is  honoured  with  the  title  of  Earl. 
The  chief  magistrate  is  styled  President. 
The  highest  title  in  the  state  is  that  of  Governor. 

Note  7. 

He  is  a  better  writer  than  reader. 
He  was  an  abler  mathematician  than  linguist 
I  should  rather  have  an  orange  than  an  apple. 

Note  8. 


Tht  words  (or  those  words)  which 
be  misunderstood. 


are  signs  of  complex  ide&fl,  are  lijtbte  W 

The  carriages  which  were  formerly  in  use,  were  very  clumsy. 

The  place  is  not  mentioned  by  the  geographers  who  wrote  at  that  time. 

Note  9, 

Means  are  always  necessary  to  the  accomplishing  of  ends. 

By  the  seeing  of  the  eye,  and  the  hearing  of  the  ear,  learn  wifdoED. 

In  the  keeping  of  his  commandments,  there  is  great  reward. 

For  the  revealing  of  a  secret,  theie  is  no  remedy. 

Have  you  no  repugnance  to  the  torturing  of  animals  1 

Note  10. 

By  breaking  the  law,  you  dishonour  the  lawgiver. 
An  argument  so  weak  is  not  worth  mentioning. 
In  letting  go  our  hope,  we  let  all  go. 
Avoid  talking  too  much  of  your  ancestors. 
The  cuckoo  keeps  repeating  her  unvaried  notes. 
Forbear  boasting  of  what  you  can  do. 

RULE  II.— NOMINATIVES. 

. 
He  that  is  studious,  will  improve. 

Tkey  that  seek  wisdom,  will  be  wise. 
She  and  /  are  of  the  same  age. 


264  ENGLISH    GfcAMMAR. 

You  are  two  or  three  years  older  than  we. 

Are  not  John  and  thou  cousins  1 

I  can  write  as  handsomely  as  thou. 

Nobody  said  so  but  he. 

Who  do«t  thou  think  was  there  ? 

Who  broke  this  slate  ?     /. 

We  are  alone ;  here's  none  but  Hum  and  I. 

Them  that  honour  me,  I  will  honour ;  and  tlity  that  despise  mo,  shall  be 

lightly  esteemed. — 1  Sam.  ii.  30. 
He  w/io  in  that  instance  was  deceived,  is  a  man  of  sound  judgement. 

RULE  III.— APPOSITION. 

The  book  is  a  present  from  my  brother  Richard,  him  that  keeps  the 

bookstore. 
I  am  going  to  see  my  friends  in  the  country,  them  that  we  met  at  the 

ferry. 
This  dress  was  made  by  Catharine,  the  milliner,  her  that  we  saw  at 

work. 
Dennis,  the  gardener,  he  that  gave  me  the  tulips,  has  promised  mo  8 

piony. 

Resolve  me,  why  the  cottager  and  king, 
He  whom  sea-sever'd  realms  obey,  ana  he 
Who  steals  his  whole  dominion  from  tke  waste, 
Repelling  winter  blasts  with  mud  and  straw, 
Disquieted  alike,  draw  sigh  for  sigh. — Young. 

RULE  IV.— ADJECTIVES. 

Note  1. 

Things  of  t his  sort  are  easily  understood. 

Who  broke  those  tongs  ? 

Where  did  I  drop  these  scissors  1 

Bring  out  those  oats. 

Extinguish  those  embers. 

1  disregard  these  minutiae. 

Ti)&t  kind  of  injuries  we  need  not  fear. 

What  was  the  height  of  that  gallows  which  Hainan  erected  t 

Note  2. 

We  rode  about  ten  miles  an  houi. 

Tis  for  a  thousand  pounds. 

How  deep  is  the  water  ?     About  six  fathoms. 

The  lot  is  twenty-five  feet  wide. 

I  have  bought  eight  loads  of  wood. 

Note  3. 

Industry  is  one  means  of  obtaining  competence. 

Scholasticus  sought  opportunities  to  display  his  learning  ;   and,  by  this 

means,  rendered  himself  ridiculous. 
Caled  was  remarkable  for  his  modesty,  docility,  and  ingenuity  •  and,  bv 

these  means,  he  acquired  both  knowledge  and  fame. 

Note  4. 

H«  chose  the  last  of  these  three. 

Trisyllables  are  often  accented  on  the  first  syllable. 

Which  are  the  two  moat  remarkable  isthmuses  in  the  world  1 


KEY  TO  FALSE  SYNTAX.  265 

Note  5. 

The  Scriptures  are  more  valuable  than  any  other  writings. 

The  Russian  empire  is  more  extensive  than  any  other  government  in  the 

world. 
Israel  loved  Joseph  more  than  all  his  oOier  children,  because  he  was  the  son 

of  his  old  age. 

Note  G. 

Of  all  ill  habits  idleness  is  the  most  incorrigible. 

Eve  was  the  fairest  of  women. 

Hope  is  the  most  constant  of  all  the  passions. 

Note  7. 

That  opinion  is  too  general  (or  common)  to  be  easily  corrected. 

Virtue  confers  the  greatest  (or  highest)  dignity  upon  man. 

The  tongue  is  like  a  race-horse  :   the  less  weight  it  carries,  the  faster  it 

runs. 

A  healthier  (or  more  healthy)  place  cannot  be  found. 
The  best  and  the  wisest  men  often  meet  with  discouragements. 

Note  8. 

He  showed  us  an  easier  and  more  agreeable  way. 
This  was  the  plainest  and  most  convincing  argument. 
Some  of  the  wisest  and  most  moderate  of  the  senators. 
This  is  an  ancient  and  tionourable  fraternity. 
There  vice  shall  meet  a  fatal  and  irrevocable  doom. 

Note  9. 

He  is  an  industrious  young  man. 

She  has  an  elegant  new  house. 

The  first  two  classes  have  read. 

The  two  oldest  sons  have  removed  to  the  westward. 

England  had  not  seen  an  other  such  king. 

Note  10. 

She  reads  well  and  writes  neatly. 

He  was  extremely  prodigal. 

They  went,  conformably  to  their  engagement. 

He  speaks  very  fluently,  and  reasons  justly. 

The  deepest  streams  run  the  most  silently. 

These  appear  to  be  finished  the  most  neatly. 

He  was  scarcely  gone,  when  you  arrived. 

I  am  exceedingly  sorry  to  hear  of  your  misfortune*. 

Th*»  work  was  uncommonly  well  executed. 

This  is  not  so  large  a  cargo  as  the  last. 

Thou  knowest  Iww  good  a  horse  mine  is. 

I  cannot  think  so  meanly  of  him. 

He  acted  much  more  wisely  than  the  others. 

Note  11. 

I  bought  tJiose  books  at  a  very  low  price. 

Go  and  tell  those  boys  to  be  still. 

I  have  several  copies :  thou  art  welcome  to  those  two. 

Which  of  those  three  men  is  the  most  useful  1 

Note  12. 

Hope  is  as  strong  an  incentive  to  action,  as  fear:  that  is  the  anticipation  of 
good,  this  of  evil.  • 

23 


266  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

The  poor  want  some  advantages  which  the  rich  enjoy ;  but  we  should  not 
therefore  account  these  happy,  and  those  miserable. 

Memory  and  forecast  just  returns  engage, 

That  pointing  back  to  youth,  this  on  to  age. — Pope. 

Note  13. 

Let  each  of  them  be  heard  in  his  turn. 

On  the  Lord's  day  every  one  of  us  Christians  keeps  the  sabbath. 

7*  either  of  these  men  known  1 

No :  neither  of  them  lias  any  connexions  here. 

Note  14. 

Did  any  of  the  company  stop  to  assist  you  ? 
Here  are  six ;  but  none  of  them  will  answer. 

Note  15. 

Some  crimes  are  thought  deserving  of  death. 

Rudeness  of  speech  is  very  unbecoming  to  [or  in]  a  gentleman. 

To  eat  with  unwashed  hands  was  disgusting  to  a  Jew. 

Leave  then  thy  joys,  unsuiting  to  such  age — or, 
Leave  then  thy  joys,  not  suiting  such  an  age, 
To  a  fresh  comer,  and  resign  the  stage. 

RULE  V.— PRONOUNS. 

Every  one  must  judge  of  his  own  feelings. 

Can  any  person,  on  his  entrance  into  the  world,  be  fully  secure  that  he  shall 

not  be  deceived  1 

He  cannot  see  one  in  prosperity,  without  envying  him,. 
I  gave  him  oats,  but  he  would  not  eat  them. 
Rebecca  toek  goodly  raiment,  and  put  it  on  Jacob. 
Take  up  the  tongs,  and  put  them  in  their  place. 
Let  each  esteem  others  better  than  himself. 
A  person  may  make  himself  happy  without  riches. 
Every  man  should  try  to  provide  for  himself. 
The  mind  of  man  should  not  be  left  without  something  on  which  to  employ 

its  energies. 

An  idler  is  a  watch  that  wants  both  hands, 

As  useless  if  it  goes,  as  when  it  stands. —  Cowper. 

Note  1. 

Many  words  darken  speech. 
These  praises  he  then  seemed  inclined  to  retract. 
These  people  are  all  very  ignorant. 
Asa's  heart  was  perfect  with  the  Lord. 
Who,  in  stead  of  going  about  doing  good,  are  perpetually  intent  upon  doing 

mischief. 

Whom  ye  delivered  up,  and  denied  in  the  presence  of  Pontius  Pilate. 
Whom,  when  they  had  washed  her,  they  laid  in  an  upper  chamber. 
There  are  witnesses  of  the  fact  which  I  have  mentioned. 
He  is  now  sorry  for  what  he  said. 

The  empress,  approving  these  conditions,  immediately  ratified  them. 
Though  this  incident  appears  improbable,  yet  I  cannot  doubt  the  author  • 

veracity. 

Note  2. 
Thou  art  my  father's  brother,  else  would  I  reprove  ihee — 01^ 


KEY   TO    FALSE   SYNTAX  207 

You  are  my  father's  brother,  else  would  I  reprove  you. 
Your  weakness  is  excusable,  but  your  wickedness  is  not — or, 
Thy  weakness  is  excusable,  but  thy  wickedness  is  not. 
Now,  my  son,  I  forgive  thee,  and  freely  pardon  thy  fault — or, 
Now,  my  son,  I  forgive  you,  and  freely  pardon  your  fault. 

You  draw  the  inspiring  breath  of  ancient  song, 

Till  nobly  rises  emulous  your  own — or, 

Thou  drawst  the  inspiring  breath  of  ancient  song, 

Till  nobly  rises  emulous  thy  own. 

Note  3. 

This  is  the  horse  which  my  father  imported. 

Those  are  the  birds  which  we  call  gregarious. 

He  has  two  brothers,  one  of  whom  I  am  acquainted  with. 

What  was  that  creature  which  Job  called  leviathan  7 

Those  who  desire  to  be  safe,  should  be  careful  to  do  that  which  is  right 

A  butterfly,  who  thought  himself  an  accomplished  traveller,  happened  to 

light  upon  a  bee-hive. 
There  was  a  certain  householder,  who  planted  a  vineyard. 

Note  4. 

He  instructed  and  fed  the  crowds  that  surrounded  him. 

The  court,  which  has  great  influence  upon  the  public  manners,  ought  to  be 

very  exemplary. 

The  wild  tribes  that  inhabit  the  wilderness,  contemplate  the  ocean  with  aa- 
onishment,  and  gaze  upon  the  starry  heavens  with  delight. 

Note  5. 

Judas  (which  is  now  an  other  name  for  treachery)  betrayed  his  master  with 

a  kiss. 
He  alluded  to  Phalaris, — which  is  a  name  for  all  that  is  cruel. 

Note  6. 

He  was  the  first  that  entered. 
He  was  the  drollest  fellow  that  I  ever  saw. 
This  is  the  same  man  that  we  saw  before. 
Who  is  she  tftat  comes  clothed  in  a  robe  of  green  1 
The  wife  and  fortune  tliat  he  gained,  did  not  aid  him. 
Men  that  are  avaricious,  never  have  enough. 
All  tJtat  I  have,  is  thine. 
Was  it  thou,  or  the  wind,  that  shut  the  door! 
It  was  not  I  that  shut  it. 
The  babe  that  was  in  the  cradle,  appeared  to  be  healthy. 

Note  7. 

He  is  a  man  that  knows  what  belongs  to  good  manners,  and  that  will  not 

do  a  dishonourable  act. 
The  friend  who  was  here,  and  who  entertained  us  so  much,  will  never  be 

able  to  visit  us  again. 
The  curiosities  which  he  has  brought  home,  and  which  we  shall  have  the 

pleasure  of  seeing,  are  said  to  be  very  rare. 

Note  S. 

Observe  them  in  the  order  in  which  they  stand. 
We  proceeded  immediately  to  the  place  to  which  we  were  directed. 
My  companion  remained  a  week  in  the  state  in  which  I  left  him. 
The  way  in  which  I  do  it,  is  this. 


268  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Note  9. 

Remember  the  condition  from  which  thou  art  rescued. 
I  know  of  no  rule  by  which  it  may  be  done. 

He  drew  up  a  petition,  in  which  he  too  freely  represented  his  own  merits. 
The  hour  is  hastening,  in  which  whatever  praise  or  censure  I  have  acquired, 
will  be  remembered  with  equal  indifference. 

Note  10. 

Many  will  acknowledge  the  excellence  of  religion,  who  cannot  tell  wherein 

that  excellence  consists. 
Every  difference  of  opinion  is  not  a  difference  of  principle.  —  Jefferson.     Bet- 

ter: Not  every  difference  of  opinion  is  a  difference  of  principle. 
Next  to  the   knowledge  of  God,  this  knowledge  of  ourselves  seems  most 

worthy  of  our  endeavour. 

Note  11. 

Thau,  w7w  hast  thus  condemned  the  act,  art  thyself  the  man  that  commit- 

ted it. 
There  is  in  simplicity  a  certain  majesty,  which  is  far  above  the  quaintness  of 

wit. 

Tluni,  who  art  a  party  concerned,  hast  no  right  to  judge. 
It  is  impossible  for  such  men  as  those  who  are  likely  to  get  the  appointment, 

ever  to  determine  this  question. 
There  are,  in  the  empire  of  China,  millions  of  people,  whose  support  is  de- 

rived almost  entirely  from  rice. 


I  had  no  idea  but  that  the  story  was  true. 

The  post-boy  is  not  so  weary  but  that  he  can  whistle. 

He  had  no  intimation  but  that  the  men  were  honest. 

Note  13. 

Some  men  are  too  ignorant  to  be  humble;  and  without  humility  there  can 

be  no  docility. 
Judas  declared  him  innocent  ;  but  innocent  he  could  not  be,  had  he  in  any 

respect  deceived  the  disciples. 
Be  accurate  in  all  you  say  or  do  ;  for  accuracy  is  important  in  all  the  con- 

cerns of  life. 
Every  law  supposes  the  transgressor  to  be  wicked;  and  indeed  he  is  so,  if 

the  law  is  just 

RULE  VI.—  PRONOUNS 

In  youth,  the  multitude  eagerly  pursue  pleasure,  as  if  it  were  their  chief 

good. 
The  council  were  not  unanimous,  and  they  separated  without  coming  to  any 

determination. 
The  committee  were  divided  in  sentiment,  and  they  referred  the  business  to 

the  general  meeting. 
There  nappened  to  the  army  a  very  strange  accident,  which  put  them  in 

great  consternation. 
The  enemy  were  not  able  to  support  the  charge,  and  they  dispersed  and 

The  defendant's  counsel  had  a  difficult  task  imposed  on  them. 

The  board  of  health  publish  their  proceedings. 

I  saw  all  the  species  thus  delivered  from  their  sorrows. 


KEY  TO  FALSE  SYNTAX.  969 

Note  1. 

I  saw  the  whole  species  thus  delivered  from  its  sorrows. 
This  court  is  famous  for  the  justice  of  Us  decisions. 
The  convention  then  resolved  itself  into  a  committee  of  the  whole. 
The  crowd  was  so  great  that  the  judges  with  difficulty  made  their  way 
through  it. 

RULE  VIL— PRONOUNS. 

Your  levity  and  heedlessness,  if  they  continue,  will  prevent  all  substantial 

improvement. 

Poverty  and  obscurity  will  oppress  him  only,  who  esteems  them  oppressive. 
Good  sense  and  refined  policy  are  obvious  to  few,  because  they  cannot  be 

discovered  but  by  a  train  of  reflection. 
Avoid  haughtiness  of  behaviour,  and  affectation  of  manners :  they  imply  a 

want  of  solid  merit. 
If  love  and  unity  continue,  they  will  make  you  partakers  of  one  an  other's 

joy- 
Suffer  not  jealousy  and  distrust  to  enter :  they  will  destroy,  like  a  canker, 

every  germ  of  friendship. 

Hatred  and  animosity  are  inconsistent  with  Christian  charity ;  guard,  there- 
fore, against  the  slightest  indulgence  of  them. 
Every  man  is  entitled  to  liberty  of  conscience,  and  freedom  of  opinion,  if 

he  does  not  pervert  them  to  the  injury  of  others. 

RULE  VIII.— PRONOUNS. 

Neither  Sarnh.  Ann,  nor  Jane,  has  performed  her  task. 

One  or  the  other  must  relinquish  his  claim. 

A  man  is  not  such  a  machine  as  a  clock  or  a  watch,  which  will  move  only 

as  it  w  moved. 

Rye  or  barley,  when  it  is  scorched,  may  supply  the  place  of  coffee. 
A  man  may  see  a  metaphor  or  an  allegory  in  a  picture,  as  well  as  read  it  in 

a  description. 
Despise  no  infirmity  of  mind  or  body,  nor  any  condition  of  life;  for  it  may 

be  thy  own  lot. 

RULE  IX.— VERBS. 

We  were  disappointed. 

She  darts  not  oppose  it. 

His  pulse  is  too  quick. 

Circumstances  alter  cases. 

He  needs  not  trouble  himself. 

Twenty-four  pence  are  two  shillings. 

On  one  side  were  beautiful  meadows. 

He  may  pursue  what  studies  he  pleases. 

What  has  become  of  our  cousins  1 

There  were  more  impostors  than  one. 

What  say  his  friends  on  this  subject  1 

Thou  knowest  the  urgency  of  the  case. 

What  avail  good  sentiments  with  a  bad  life  1 

Have  those  books  been  sent  to  the  school  1 

There  are  many  occasions  for  the  exercise  of  patience. 

What  sounds  has  each  of  the  vowels'? 

There  was  a  great  number  of  spectators. 

There  is  an  abundance  of  treatises  on  this  easy  science. 

While,  ever  and  anon,  there  fall 
Huge  heaps  of  hoary  moulder'd  walls— or, 
While,  ever  and  anon,  there  falls 
A  heap  of  hoary  moulder'd  walls. 
23* 


270  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

He  that  trusts  in  the  Lord,  will  never  be  without  a  friend. 

Errors  that  originate  in  ignorance,  are  generally  excusable. 

Be  ye  not  as  the  horse,  or  as  the  mule,  which  ftas  no  understanding. 

Not  one  of  the  authors  who  mention  this  incident,  is  entitled  to  credit. 

The  man  and  woman  that  were  present,  being  strangers  to  him,  wondered 

at  his  conduct. 

There  necessarily  follow  from  thence  these  plain  and  unquestionable  conse- 
quences. 

O  thou,  forever  present  in  my  way, 

Who  all  my  motives  and  my  toils  surveyst — or, 

O  thou,  forever  present  in  my  way, 

Who  dost  my  motives  and  my  toils  survey. 

Note  1. 

The  derivation  of  these  words  is  uncertain. 

Foui  years'  interest  was  demanded. 

One  added  to  nineteen,  makes  twenty. 

The  increase  of  orphans  renders  the  addition  necessary. 

The  road  to  virtue  and  happiness  is  open  to  all. 

The  ship,  with  all  her  crew,  was  lost. 

A  round  of  vain  and  foolish  pursuits,  delights  some  folks. 

Note  2. 

To  obtain  the  praise  of  men,  was  their  only  object. 
To  steal  and  then  deny  it,  is  a  double  sin. 
To  copy  and  claim  the  writings  of  others,  is  plagiarism. 
To  live  boberly,  righteously,  and  piously,  is  required  of  all  men. 
That  it  is  our  duty  to  promote  peace  and  harmony  among  men,  admttt  of  no 
dispute. 

Note  3. 

The  reproofs  of  instruction  are  the  way  of  life. 
A  diphthong  is  two  vowels  joined  in  one  syllable. 
So  great  an  affliction  to  him  were  his  wicked  sons. 
What  are  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  that  bland? 
He  churlishly  said  to  me,  '  Who  are  you!' 

Note  4. 

1.  Familiar  Style. 

Was  it  thou  that  built  that  house  1 

That  boy  writes  very  elegantly. 

Could  not  thou  write  without  blotting  thy  book  ? 

Dost  not  thou  think — or,  Don't  thou  think,  it  will  rain  to-day? 

Does  not — or,  Don't  your  cousin,  intend  to  visit  you  ? 

That  boy  has  torn  my  book. 

Was  it  thou  that  spread  the  hay  ? 

Was  it  James  or  thou  that  let  him  in  ? 

He  dares  not  say  a  word. 

Thou  stood  in  my  way  and  hindered  me. 

2.  Solemn  Style. 

The  Lord  hath  prepared  his  throne  in  the  heavens ;  and  his  kingdom  ruleth 

over  all. — Psalm,  ciii.  19. 
Thou  answeredst  them,  O  Lord  our  God :  thou  wast  a  God  that  forgave* 

them,  though  thou  tookest  vengeance  of  their  inventions. 

*  Forgavest  (as  in  Psalm,  xcix.  8.)  appears  to  be  wrong ;  because  the  rela- 
tive that  and  its  antet edent  God  are  of  th«  third  person,  and  not  of  the  second. 


KEY   TO   FALSE   SYNTAX.  271 

Then  thou    speakest   in  vision  to  thy  Holy  One,    and    saidst — Psalm, 

Ixxxix.  19. 
So  then,  it  is  not  of  him  that  witteth,  nor  of  him  that  runneth,  but  of  God 

that  showeth  mercy. — Rom.  ix.  16. 

Note  5. 

New- York,  Fiflhmonth  3d,  1823. 
Dear  friend, 

I  am  sorry  to  hear  of  thy  loss ;  but  /  hope  it  may  be  retrieved. 
f  should  be  happy  to  render  thee  any  assistance  in  my  power.  /  shall 
•.all  to  see  thee  to-morrow  morning.  Accept  assurances  of  my  regard. 

A.  B. 

New-York,  May  3d,  P.  M.  1823. 
Dear  sir, 

/  have  just  received  the  kind  note  you  favoured  mo  with  this 
morning;  and  /  cannot  forbear  to  express  my  gratitude  to  you.  On 
further  information,  /  find  /  have  not  lost  so  much  as  /  at  first  sup- 
posed ;  and  /  believe  /  shall  still  be  able  to  meet  all  my  engagements.  1 
should,  however,  be  happy  to  see  you.  Accept,  dear  sir,  my  most  cordial 
thanks.  C.  D. 

Will  martial  flames  forever  fire  thy  mind, 
And  wilt  thou  never  be  to  Heaven  resign'd  1 

RULE  X.— VERBS. 

The  nobility  were  assured  that  he  would  not  interpose. 

The  committee  have  attended  to  their  appointment. 

Mankind  were  not  united  by  the  bonds  of  civil  society. 

The  majority  were  disposed  to  adopt  the  measure. 

The  peasantry  go  barefoot,  and  the  middle  sort  make  use  of  wooden 

shoes. 

All  the  world  are  spectators  of  your  conduct. 
Blessed  are  the  people  that  know  the  joyful  sound. 

Note  1. 

The  church  has  no  power  to  inflict  corporal  punishments. 
The  fleet  was  seen  sailing  up  the  channel. 
The  meeting  has  established  several  salutary  regulations. 
The  regiment  consists  of  a  thousand  men. 
A  detachment  of  two  hundred  men  was  immediately  sent. 
Every  auditory  takes  this  in  good  part. 
In  this  business,  the  house  of  commons  was  of  no  weight. 
7*  the  senate  considered  as  a  separate  body  1 
There  is  a  flock  of  birds. 

No  society  is  chargeable  with  the  disapproved  conduct  of  particular  mem- 
bers. 

RULE  XL—VERBS. 

Temperance  and  exercise  preserve  health. 

Time  and  tide  wait  for  no  man. 

My  love  and  affection  towards  thee  remain  unaltered. 

Wealth,  honour,  and  happiness,  forsake  the  indolent. 

My  flesh  and  my  heart  JaiL 

]  n  all  his  works,  there  are  sprightliness  and  vigour. 

1  Elizabeth's  meekness  and  humility  were  extraordinary. 

In  unity  consist  -he  security  and  welfare  of  every  society. 


272  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

High  pleasures  and  luxurious  living  beget  satiety. 

Much  do  human  pride  and  folly  require  correction. 

Our  conversation  and  intercourse  with  the  world  are,  in  several  respects,  on 
education  for  vice. 

Occasional  release  from  toil,  and  indulgence  of  ease,  are  what  nature  de- 
mands, and  virtue  allows. 

What  generosity,  and  what  humanity,  were  then  displayed! 

What  thou  desir'st, 
And  what  thou  fearest,  alike  destroy  all  hope. 

Note  1. 

Wisdom,  and  not  wealth,  procures  esteem. 
Prudence,  and  not  pomp,  is  the  basis  of  his  fame. 
Not  fear,  but  labour  has  overcome  him. 
The  decency,  and  not  the  abstinence,  makes  the  difference. 
Not  her  beauty,  but  her  talents  attract  attention. 
It  is  her  talents,  and  not  her  beauty,  that  attract  attention. 
It  is  her  beauty,  and  not  her  talents,  tJiat  attracts  attention. 

Note  2. 

His  constitution,  as  well  as  his  fortune,  requires  care. 
Their  religion,  as  well  as  their  manners,  icas  ridiculed. 
Every  one,  but  thou,  had  been  legally  discharged. 
The  buyer,  as  well  as  the  seller,  renders  himself  liable. 
All  songsters,  save  the  hooting  owl,  icere  mute. 
None,  but  thou,  O  mighty  prince!  can  avert  the  blow. 
Nothing,  but  frivolous  amusements,  pleases  the  indolent. 
Caesar,  as  well  as  Cicero,  was  admired  for  his  eloquence. 

Note  3. 

Each  day,  and  each  hour,  brings  its  portion  of  duty. 

Every  house,  and  even  every  cottage,  was  plundered. 

Every  thought,  every  word,  and  every  action,  will  be  brought  into  judge- 
ment, whether  it  be  good  or  evil. 

The  time  will  come,  when  no  oppressor,  no  unjust  man,  will  be  able  txj 
screen  himself  from  punishment. 

No  bandit  fierce,  no  tyrant  mad  with  pride, 
No  cavern'd  hermit,  rests  self-satisfied. — Pope. 

Note  4. 

In  this  affair,  perseverance  and  dexterity  were  requisite. 
Town  and  country  are  equally  agreeable  to  me. 
Sobriety  arid  humility  lead  to  honour. 

The  king,  the  lords,  and  the  commons,  compose  the  British  parliament 
The  man  and  his  whole  family  are  dead. 
A  small  house  and  a  trifling  annuity  are  still  granted  him. 

Note  5. 

To  profess,  and  to  possess,  are  very  different  things. 
To  do  justly,  to  love  mercy,  and  to  walk  humbly  with  God,  are  duties  of 

universal  obligation. 
To  be  round  or  square,  to  be  solid  or  fluid,  to  be  large  or  small,  and  to  b« 

moved  swiftly  or  slowly,  are  all  equally  alien  from  the  nature  of  thought 

RULE  XII.— VERBS. 

Neither  imprudence,  credulity,  nor  vanity,  has  ever  bsen  imputed  to  him. 
What  the  heart  or  the  imagination  dictates,  flows  readily. 


KEY  TO   FALSE   SYNTAX.  273 

Neither  authority  nor  analogy  supports  such  an  opinion. 

Either  ability  or  inclination  was  wanting. 

Redundant  grass  or  heath  affords  abundance  to  their  cattle. 

The  returns  of  kindness  are  sweet ;  and  there  is  neither  honour,  nor  virtue, 

nor  utility,  in  repelling  them. 
The  sense  or  drift  of  a  proposition,  often  depends  upon  a  single  letter. 

Note  1. 

Neither  he  nor  you  were  there. 
Either  the  boys  or  I  was  in  fault. 
Neither  he  nor  I  intend  to  be  present. 
Neither  the  captain  nor  the  sailors  were  saved. 

Whether  one  person  or  more  were  concerned  in  the  business,  does  not  yet 
appear. 

Note  2. 

Are  they,  or  am  I,  expected  to  be  there  1 

Neither  is  he,  nor  am  I,  capable  of  it. 

Either  he  has  been  imprudent,  or  his  associates  have  been  vindictive. 

Neither  were  their  riches,  nor  was  their  influence  great. 

Note  3. 

My  father  and  I  were  riding  out. 
The  premiums  were  given  to  George  and  me. 
Jane  and  I  are  invited. 
They  ought  to  invite  my  sister  and  me. 
TVe  dreamed  a  dream  in  one  night,  he  and  1. 

Note  4. 

To  practise  tale-bearing,  or  even  to  countenance  it,  is  great  injustice. 
To  reveal  secrets,  or  to  betray  one's  friends,  is  contemptible  perfidy. 

RULE  XIII.— VERBS. 

Doth  he  not  leave  the  ninety  and  nine,  and  go  into  the  mountains,  and  seek 
that  which  is  gone  astray  1 

Did  he  not  tell  thee  his  fault,  and  entreat  thee  to  forgive  him  1 

If  he  understands  the  business,  and  attends  to  it,  wherein  is  he  de- 
ficient 1 

The  day  is  approaching,  and  is  hastening  upon  us,  in  which  we  must  give 
an  account  of  our  stewardship. 

If  thou  dost  not  turn  unto  the  Lord,  but  dost  forget  him  who  remembered 
thee  in  thy  distress,  great  will  be  thy  condemnation — or,  better:  If  thou 
turn  not  unto  the  Lord,  but  forget  him  who  remembered  thee  in  thy  dis- 
tress, great  will  be  thy  condemnation. 

There  are  a  few,  who  have  kept  their  integrity  to  the  Lord,  and  who  prefer 
his  truth  to  all  other  enjoyments. 

This  report  was  current  yesterday,  and  it  agrees  with  what  we  heard 
before. 

Virtue  is  generally  praised,  and  it  would  be  generally  practised  also,  if  men 
were  wise. 

Note  1. 

He  would  Jiave  gone  with  us,  if  we  had  invited  him. 
They  have  chosen  the  part  of  honour  and  virtue. 
He  soon  began  to  be  weary  of  having  nothing  to  do. 
Somebody  has  broken  my  slate. 
I  saw  him  when  he  did  it 


274  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Note  2. 

He  had  entered  into  the  conspiracy. 

The  American  planters  raise  cotton  and  rice. 

The  report  is  founded  on  truth. 

I  entered  the  room  and  sat  down. 

Go  and  lie  down,  my  son. 

With  such  books,  it  will  always  be  difficult  to  teach  children  to  read. 

RULE  XIV.— PARTICIPLES. 
Note  1. 

By  observing  truth,  you  will  command  respect. 

I  could  not,  for  my  heart,  forbear  pitying  him. 

I  heard  them  discussing  this  subject. 

By  consulting  the  best  authors,  he  became  learned. 

Here  are  rules,  by  observing  which,  you  may  avoid  error. 

Note  2. 

Their  consent  was  necessary  for  the  raising  of  any  supplies. 
Thus  the  saving  of  a  great  nation  devolved  on  a  husbandman. 
It  is  an  overvaluing  of  ourselves,  to  decide  upon  every  thing. 
The  teacher  does  not  allow  any  calling  of  ill  names. 
That  burning  of  the  capitol  was  a  wanton  outrage. 
May  nothing  hinder  our  receiving  of  so  great  a  good. 
My  admitting  of  the  fact  will  not  affect  the  argument. 
Cain's  killing  of  his  brother  originated  in  envy.  , 

Note  3. 

Csesar  carried  off  the  treasures,  which  his  opponent  had  neglected  to  takt 

with  him. 

It  is  dangerous  to  play  with  edge  tools. 
I  intend  to  return  in  a  few  days. 

To  suffer  needlessly — or.  Needless  suffering  is  never  a  duty. 
Nor  is  it  wise  to  complain. 

I  well  remember  to  have  told  you  so — or,  that  I  told  you  so. 
Tlie  doing  of  good — or,  To  do  good,  is  a  Christian's  vocation. 
Piety  is  a  constant  endeavour  to  live  to  God.    It  is  an  earnest  desire  to  do  his 

will,  and  not  our  own. 

Note  4. 

There  is  no  harm  in  women's  knowing  about  these  things. 
They  did  not  give  notice  of  the  pupil's  leaving. 
The  sun,  darting  his  beams  through  my  window,  awoke  me. 
The  maturity  of  the  sago  tree  is  known  by  the  leaves1  being  covered  with  a 
delicate  white  powder. 

Note  5. 

Sailing  up  the  river,  you  may  see  the  whole  town. 
Being  conscious  of  guilt,  men  tremble  at  death — or,  Consciousnest  of  guilt 

renders  death  terrible. 

By  yielding  to  temptation,  we  sacrifice  our  peace. 
In  loving  our  enemies,  we  shed  no  man's  blood. 
By  teaching  the  young,  we  prepare  them  for  usefulness. 

Note  6. 

A  nail  well  driven  will  support  a  great  weight 
See  here  a  hundred  sentences  stolen  from  my  work. 


KEY   TO   FALSE    SYNTAX.  275 

I  found  the  water  entirely  frozen,  and  the  pitcher  broken 
UGingforsaken  by  my  friends,  I  had  no  other  resource. 

Note  7. 

Till  by  barbarian  deluges  o'er/lowed. 
Like  the  lustre  of  diamonds  set  in  gold. 
A  beam  etherial,  sullied  and  absorbed. 
With  powerless  wings  around  them  wrapped. 
Error  learned  frem  preaching,  is  held  as  sacred  truth. 

RULE  XV.— AD  VERBS. 

Not*  1. 

The  work  will  never  be  completed. 
We  should  always  prefer  our  duty  to  our  pleasure. 
It  is  impossible  to  be  continually  at  work. 
He  behaved  impertinently  to  his  master. 
The  heavenly  bodies  are  perpetually  in  motion. 
He  found  her  not  only  busy,  but  even  pleased  and  happy. 

Note  2. 

Give  him  an  early  and  decisive  answer. 
When  a  substantive  is  put  absolute. 
Such  expressions  sound  harsh. 
Such  events  are  of  rare  (or  unfrequent)  occurrence. 
Velvet  feels  very  smooth. 

Note  3. 

Bring  him  hither  to  me. 
I  shall  go  thither  again  in  a  few  days. 
Whither  are  they  all  riding  in  so  great  haste  1 

Note  4. 

Hence  it  appears  that  the  statement  is  incorrect 
Thence  arose  the  misunderstanding. 
Do  you  know  whence  it  proceeds  1 

Note  5. 

You  see  that  not  many  are  required. 
I  knew  that  they  had  heard  of  his  misfortunes. 
He  remarked,  that  time  was  valuable. 

Note  6. 

Know  now,  whether  this  is  thy  son's  coat  or  not. 
Whether  h»*  is  in  fault  or  not,  I  cannot  tell. 
I  will  ascertain  whether  it  is  so  or  not. 

Note  7. 

I  will  by  no  means  entertain  a  spy. 

Nobody  ever  invented  or  discovered  any  thing,  in  any  way  to  be  compared 

with  this. 

Be  honest,  and  take  no  shape  or  semblance  of  disguise. 
I  did  not  like  either  his  temper  or  his  principles. 
Nothing  ever  can  justify  ingratitude. 

RULE  XVI.— CONJUNCTIONS. 

Note  1. 

He  has  made  alterations  in  the  work,  and  additions  to  & 
He  is  more  bold  than  his  companion,  but  not  so  wise. 
Sincerity  is  as  valuable  a*  knowledge,  and  even  more  so. 


276  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR, 

I  always  have  been,  and  I  always  shall  be,  of  this  opinion. 

What  is  now  kept  secret,  shall  be  hereafter  displayed  and  seen  in  the  clear- 
est light. 

We  pervert  the  noble  faculty  of  speech,  when  we  use  it  to  defame  or  to  dis- 
quiet our  neighbours. 

Be  more  anxious  to  acquire  knowledge,  than  to  show  it. 

The  court  of  chancery  frequently  mitigates  and  disarms  the  common 
law. 

Note  2. 

We  were  apprehensive  that  some  accident  had  happened. 

I  do  not  deny  that  he  has  merit. 

Are  you  afraid  that  he  will  forget  you  1 

These  paths  and  bow'rs,  doubt  not  that  our  joint  hands 
Will  keep  from  wilderness. 

Note  3. 

It  was  no  other  than  his  own  father. 

Have  you  no  further  proof  than  this  ? 

I  expected  something  more  than  this. 

He  no  sooner  retires  than  his  heart  burns  with  devotion. 

Such  literary  filching  is  nothing  else  than  robbery. 

Note  4. 

Neither  despise  nor  oppose  what  you  do  not  understand. 

He  would  neither  do  it  himself  nor  let  me  do  it. 

The  majesty  of  good  things  is  such,  that  the  confines  of  them  are  rev- 
erend. 

Whether  he  intends  to  do  so  or  not,  I  cannot  tell. 

Send  me  such  articles  only,  as  are  adapted  to  this  market. 

£0  far  as  I  am  able  to  judge,  the  book  is  well  written. 

No  errors  are  so  trivial  as  not  to  deserve  correction. 

It  will  neither  improve  the  rnind,  nor  delight  the  fancy. 

The  one  is  as  deserving  as  the  other. 

There  is  no  condition  so  secure  that  it  cannot  admit  of  change. 

Do  you  think  this  is  as  good  as  that  1 

The  relations  are  so  obscure  tliat  they  require  much  thought. 

None  is  so  fierce  as  to  dare  stir  him  up. 

There  was  no  man  so  sanguine  as  not  to  apprehend  some  ill  conse- 
quence. 

I  must  be  so  candid  as  to  own  that  I  do  not  understand  it. 

The  book  is  not  so  well  printed  as  it  ought  to  be. 

As  still  he  sat  as  those  who  wait, 
Till  judgement  speak  the  doom  of  fate. 

RULE  XVII.— PREPOSITIONS. 

Note  1. 

She  finds  a  difficulty  in  fixing  her  mind. 
This  affair  did  not  fall  under  nis  cognizance. 
He  was  accused  of  betray  ing  his  trust. 
There  was  no  water,  and  he  died  of  thirst. 
I  have  no  occasion  for  his  services. 
You  may  safely  confide  in  him. 
I  entertain  no  prejudice  against  him. 
You  may  rely  on  what  I  tell  you. 

and  vice  differ  widely  .from  each  other. 


KTJY    TO    FALSE    SYNTAX.  277 


Thi«  remark  is  founded  on  truth. 
After  many  toils,  we  arrived  at  our  journey's  end. 
I  will  tell  you  a  story  very  di(Terent/ro?n  that. 
Their  conduct  is  agreeable  to  their  profession. 
Excessive  pleasures  pass  from  satiety  into  disgust. 
I  turned  in  disgust  from  the  spectacle. 
They  are  gone  into  the  meadow. 
Let  this  be  divided  among  the  three. 
The  shells  were  broken  into  pieces. 
The  deception  has  passed  with  every  one. 
They  never  quarrel  with  each  other. 

Through  every  difficulty — or,  Amidst  all  difficulties,  he  persevered. 
Let  us  go  up  stairs. 

I  was  in  London,  when  this  happened. 
We  were  detained  at  home,  and  disappointed  o/our  walk. 
This  originated  in  mistake. 

The  Bridewell  is  situated  on  the  west  of  the  City-Hall,  and  it  has  no  com- 
munication with  the  other  buildings. 
I  am  disappointed  in  the  work ;  it  is  very  inferior  to  what  I  expected. 

Note  2. 

Be  worthy  of  me,  as  I  am  worthy  of  you. 
They  cannot  but  be  unworthy  of  the  care  of  others. 
Thou  shall  have  no  portion  on  this  side  of  the  river. 
Sestos  and  Abydos  were  exactly  opposite  to  each  other. 
Ovid  was  banished  from  Rome  by  his  patron  Augustus. 

RULE  XIX.— POSSESSIVES. 
Note  I. 

Man's  chief  good  is  an  upright  mind. 

I  will  not  destroy  the  city  for  tens  sake. 

Moses's  rod  was  turned  into  a  serpent. 

They  are  wolves  in  sheeps'  clothing. 

The  tree  is  known  by  its  fruit. 

The  privilege  is  not  theirs,  any  more  than  it  is  yours. 

Yet  he  was  gentle  as  soft  summer  airs, 

Had  grace  for  others'  sins,  but  none  for  theirs. — Cowper. 

Note  2. 

There  is  but  little  difference  between  the  Earth's  and  Venus's  diameter. 
This  hat  is  John's,  or  James's. 
The  store  is  opposite  to  Morris  and  Company's. 
This  palace  had  been  the  grand  Sultan  Mahomet's. 
This  was  the  Apostle  Paul's  advice. 
Were  Cain's  occupation  and  AbeVs  the  same  ? 
Were  Cain's  and  Abel's  occupation  the  same  1 
Were  Cain  and  Abel's  occupations  the  same? 
Were  Cain's  and  Abel's  parents  the  same  1 
Were  Cain's  parents  and  Abel's  the  same? 
Was  Cain  and  Abel's  father  there? 
Were  Cain  and  Abel's  parents  there  ? 

Thy  Maker's  will  has  placed  thee  here, 
A  Maker  wise  and  good. 

Note  3. 

The  government  of  the  world  is  not  left  to  chance 
Ho  was  heir  to  the  son  of  Louis  the  Sixteenth. 

24 


278  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

The  throne  we  honour,  is  the  people's  choice. 

We  met  at  the  house  of  my  brother's  partner. 

An  account  of  the  proceedings  of  Alexander's  court. 

Here  is  a  copy  of  the  Constitution  of  the  Teadiers'  Society  in  the  city  of 

New-York. 

Note  4. 

Their  health  perhaps  may  be  pretty  well  secured. 
We  all  have  talents  committed  to  our  cliarge. 
For  your  sake  forgave  I  it,  in  the  sight  of  Christ. 
We  are,  for  our  part,  well  satisfied. 
The  pious  cheerfully  submit  to  their  lot. 
Fools  think  it  not  worth  their  while  to  be  wise. 

Note  5. 

I  rewarded  the  boy  for  studying  so  diligently. 
Have  you  a  rule  for  thus  parsing  the  participle  ? 
He  errs  in  giving  the  word  a  double  construction. 
By  offending  others,  we  expose  ourselves. 
They  deserve  our  thanks  for  quickly  relieving  us. 

RULE  XX.—  OBJECTIVES, 

Tfiee  only  have  I  cnosen. 

Whom  shall  we  send  on  this  errand  1 

My  father  allowed  my  brother  and  me  to  accompany  him. 

Him  that  is  idle  and  mischievous,  reprove  sharply. 

Whom  should  I  meet  but  my  old  friend  ! 

How  long  will  it  take  you  to  do  it  ? 

He  accosts  whomever  he  meets. 

Wlwmsoever  the  court  favours,  is  safe. 

Them  that  honour  me,  I  will  honour. 

Whom  do  you  think  I  saw  the  other  day  1 

Note  1. 

The  ambitious  are  always  seeking  to  aggrandize  thtmtelvet. 

I  must  premise  three  circumstances. 

This  society  does  not  allow  personal  reflections. 

False  accusation  cannot  diminish  real  merit. 

His  servants  ye  are  whom  ye  obey. 


Good  keeping  fattens  the  herd. 

We  endeavoured  to  reconcile  the  parties. 

Being  weary,  he  sat  down. 

Go,^ee  away  into  the  land  of  Judah. 

The  popular  lords  did  not  fail  to  enlarge  on  the  subject 

Note  3. 

The  benejit  of  their  recantation  was  refused  them. 
Temporal  riches  are  not  promised  to  believers. 
Several  beautiful  pictures  were  shown  us. 
But,  unfortunately,  the  favour  was  denied  me. 
A  high  compliment  was  paid  you. 
The  question  has  never  been  asked  me. 

RULE  XXI.—  SAME  CASKS. 
We  thought  it  was  tJiou. 
I  would  act  the  same  part,  if  I  were  he. 


KEY    TO    FALSE   SYNTAX.  279 


It  could  not  have  been  she. 

It  is  not  /,  that  he  is  angry  with. 

They  believed  it  to  be  me. 

It  was  thought  to  be  he. 

If  it  had  been  she,  she  would  have  told  us. 

We  know  it  to  be  them. 

Who  do  you  think  it  is? 

Whom  do  you  suppose  it  to  be? 

We  did  not  know  who  they  were. 

Thou  art  he  whom  they  described. 

Impossible!  it  can't  be /. 

Who  did  he  think  you  were? 

W/io  say  ye  that  I  am  ? 

RULE  XXII.— OBJECTIVES. 
Let  that  remain  a  secret  between  you  and  me. 
I  lent  the  book  to  some  one,  I  know  not  [to]  whom. 
Let  no  quarrel  occur  among  you. 
Whom  did  he  inquire  for  ?     Thee. 
From  him  that  is  needy,  turn  not  awav. 
We  are  all  accountable,  each  for  his  own  acts. 
Does  that  boy  know  whom  he  is  speaking  to? 
I  bestow  my  favours  on  whomsoever  I  will. 

RULE  XXIII.— INFINITIVES. 

Please  to  excuse  my  son's  absence. 
Cause  every  man  to  go  out  from  me. 
Forbid  them  to  enter  the  garden. 
Do  you  not  perceive  it  to  move? 
Allow  others  to  discover  your  merit. 
He  was  seen  to  go  in  at  that  gate. 
Permit  me  to  pass  this  way. 

RULE  XXIV.— INFINITIVES. 

I  felt  a  chilling  sensation  creep  over  me. 

I  have  heard  him  mention  the  subject. 

Bid  the  boys  come  in  immediately. 

I  dare  say  he  has  not  got  home  yet. 

Let  no  rash  promise  be  made. 

We  sometimes  see  bad  men  honoured. 

A  good  reader  will  make  himself  distinctly  heard. 

RULE  XXV.— NOM.  ABSOLUTE. 

/  being  young,  they  deceived  me. 

They  refusing  to  comply,  I  withdrew. 

Thou  being  present,  ne  would  not  tell  what  he  knew. 

The  child  is  lost;  and  /,  whither  shall  I  go? 

O  happy  we  !  surrounded  thus  with  blessings ! 

"  Thou  too!  Brutus,  my  son!"  cried  Caesar  overcome. 

But  he,  the  chieftain  of  them  all, 

His  sword  hangs  rusting  on  the  wall. —  W.  Soott. 

She  quick  relapsing  to  her  former  state, 
With  boding  fears  approach  the  serving  train. 

There  all  thy  gifts  and  graces  we  display, 
TTuw,  only  thou,  directing  all  our  way.— Pop*. 


280  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


RULE  XXVI.— SUBJUNCTIVES. 

First  Clause. — Subjunctive  Present. 

He  will  maintain  his  cause,  though  he  lose  his  estate. 

They  will  fine  thee,  unless  thou  offer  an  excuse. 

I  shall  walk  out  in  the  afternoon,  unless  it  rain. 

Let  him  take  heed  lest  he  fall. 

On  condition  that  he  come,  I  consent  to  stay. 

If  he  be  but  discreet,  he  will  succeed. 

Take  heed  that  thou  speak  not  to  Jacob. 

If  thou  cast  me  off,  I  shall  be  miserable. 

Send  them  to  me,  if  thou  please. 

Watch  the  door  of  thy  lips,  lest  thou  utter  folly. 

Second  Clause."— Subjunctive  Imperfect. 

If  I  were  to  write,  he  would  not  regard  it. 

If  thou  felt  as  I  do,  we  should  soon  decide. 

Though  thou  shed  thy  blood  in  the  cause,  it  would  but  prove  thee  sincerly, 

a  fool. 

If  thou  loved  him,  there  would  be  more  evidence  of  it. 
I  believed,  whatever  were  the  issue,  all  would  be  well. 
If  love  were  never  feigned,  it  would  appear  to  be  scarce. 
There  fell  from  his  eyes,  as  it  were  scales. 
If  he  were  an  impostor,  he  must  have  been  detected. 
Were  death  denied,  all  men  would  wish  to  die. 

0  that  there  were  yet  a  day  to  redress  thy  wrongs  ! 
Though  thou  wert  huge  as  Atlas,  thy  efforts  would  be  vain. 

Last  Clause. — Indicative  Mood. 

Though  he  seems  to  be  artless,  he  has  deceived  us. 

If  he  thinks  as  he  speaks,  he  may  safely  be  trusted. 

Though  this  event  is  strange,  it  certainly  did  happen. 

If  thou  lovest  tranquillity  of  mind,  seek  it  not  abroad. 

If  seasons  of  idleness  are  dangerous,  what  must  a  continued  habit  of  it 

prove  7 
Though  he  was  a  son,  yet  learned  he  obedience  by  the  things  which  he 

suffered. 

1  knew  thou  wast  not  slow  to  hear. 

Not*  1. 

The  work  was  finished  last  week. 

He  has  been  out  of  employment  this  fortnight. 

This  mode  of  expression  was  formerly  in  use. 

I  shall  be  much  obliged  to  him  if  he  will  attend  to  it. 

I  will  pay  the  vows  which  my  lips  uttered  when  I  was  in  trouble. 

I  have  compassion  on  the  multitude,  because  they  have  continued  with  me 
now  three  days. 

I  thought,  by  the  accent,  that  he  was  speaking  to  his  child. 

And  he  that  had  been  dead,  sat  up  and  began  to  speak. 

Thou  hast  borne,  and  hast  had  patience,  and  for  my  name's  sake  hast  la- 
boured, and  hast  not  fainted. 

Ye  will  not  come  unto  me  that  ye  may  have  life — or,  Ye  would  not  com* 
untD  me  that  ye  might  have  life. 

A-t  the  end  of  this  quarter.  I  shall  have  been  at  school  two  years. 

We  have  done  no  more  than  it  was  our  duty  to  do. 


KEY  TO  FALSE  SYNTAX.  281 

Note  2. 

We  expected  that  he  would  arrive  last  night. 

Our  friends  intended  to  meet  us. 

We  hoped  to  see  you. 

He  would  not  have  been  allowed  to  enter. 

Note  3. 

The  doctor  affirmed,  that  fever  always  produces  thirst. 
The  ancients  asserted,  that  virtue  is  its  own  reward. 

PROMISCUOUS  EXAMPLES  CORRECTED. 
LESSON  I. 

There  is  a  spirit  in  man ;  and  the  inspiration  of  the  Almighty  giveth  film 
understanding. 

My  people  do  not  consider. 

I  have  never  heard  whom  they  invited. 

Then  hasten  thy  return ;  for,  thou  away, 
Nor  lustre  has  the  sun,  nor  joy  the  day. 

I  am  as  well  as  when  you  icere  here. 

That  elderly  man,  him  that  came  in  late,  I  supposed  to  be  the  superin- 
tendent. 

All  the  virtues  of  mankind  are  to  be  counted  upon  a  few  fingers ;  but  their 
follies  and  vices  are  innumerable. 

It  must  indeed  be  confessed,  that  a  lampoon  or  a  satire  does  not  carry  in  it 
robbery  or  murder. 

There  were  more  persons  than  one  engaged  in  this  affair. 

A  man  who  lacks  ceremony,  has  need  of  great  merit. 

A  wiseman  avoids  the  showing  of  any  excellence  in  trifles.     Better— -for- 
bears to  show — or,  is  careful  not  to  shew,  &c. 

Thejirst  and  most  important  female  quality  is  sweetness  of  temper. 

W«  choose  rather  to  lead  than  to  follow. 

Ignorance  is  the  mother  of  fear,  as  well  as  of  admiration. 

He  must  fear  many,  whom  many  fear. 

Every  one  partakes  of  honour  bestowed  on  the  worthy. 

The  king  and  the  queen  were  not  at  all  deceived. — [Note  4&,  RuU  ll] 

Were  there  no  difference,  there  would  be  no  choice. 

I  would  rather  have  been  informed. 

Must  thou  return  this  evening  7 

Life  and  death  are  in  the  power  of  the  tongue. 

I  saw  a  person  that  I  took  to  be  her. 

Let  him  be  who  he  may,  I  shall  not  stop. 

This  is  certainly  a  useful  invention. 

That  such  a  spirit  as  thou  does  not  understand  me. 

'  It  is  no  more  tlian  justice,'  quoth  the  farmer. 

LESSON  II. 

Great  improvements  have  been  made. 
What  I  have  heard,  is  undoubtedly  true. 
The  nation  is  torn  by  feuds  which  threaten  its  ruin. 
The  account  of  these  transactions  was  incorrect. 
Godliness  with  contentment  is  great  gain. 
The  number  of  sufferers  has  not  been  ascertained. 
There  is  one  or  more  of  them  yet  in  confinement 
They  have  chosen  the  wisest  part. 
He  spent  his  whole  life  in  doing  good. 
They  scarcely  knmc  that  temperance  is  a  virtue. 
I  wn  afraid  that  I  have  laboured  in  vain. 

24* 


282  ENGLISH   GR&MM  R. 

Mischief  on  itself  doth  back  recoil. 

This  construction  sounds  rather  harsh. 

What  is  the  cause  of  the  leaves'  curling  1 

Was  it  thou,  that  made  the  noise  1 

Let  thy  flock  clothe  the  naked. 

Wisdom  and  knowledge  are  granted  unto  thee. 

His  conduct  was  surprisingly  strange. 

This  woman  taught  my  brother  and  me  to  read. 

Let  your  promises  be  such  as  you  can  perform. 

We  shall  sell  them  in  the  state  in  which  they  now  are. 

We  may,  however,  add  this  observation. 

This  came  into  fashion  when  I  was  young. 

I  did  not  use  the  leaves,  but  the  root  of  the  plant. 

We  have  used  every  means  in  our  power. 

Pass  ye  away,  ye  inhabitants  of  Saphir — or,  Pass  away,  thou  inhabitant  of 

Saphir. 
Give  every  syllable  and  every  letter  its  proper  sound. 

LESSON  III. 

To  know  exactly  how  much  mischief  may  be  ventured  upon  with  impu- 
nity, is  knowledge  enough  for  some  folks. 

Every  leaf  and  every  twig  teems  with  life. 

I  rejoiced  at  this  intelligence. 

At  this  stage  of  advancement,  the  pupil  finds  little  difficulty  in  understand- 
ing  the  passive  and  the  neuter  verbs. 

I  was  afraid  that  I  stiould  lose  the  parcel. 

Which  of  all  these  patterns  is  the  prettiest  ? 

They  that  [or  who]  despise  instruction,  shall  not  be  wise. 

Both  thou  and  thy  advisers  have  mistaken  your  interest. 

An  idle  soul  shall  suffer  hunger. 

The  lips  of  knowledge  are  a  precious  jewel. 

My  cousin  and  I  are  requested  to  attend, 
can  only  say,  that  such  is  my  belief. 

This  is  different  from  the  conscience^  being  made  to  feel 

Here  is  ground  for  their  leaving  of  the  world  with  peace — or,  (better,) 
Here  is  ground  for  leaving  the  world  with  peace. 

Whither  are  you  all  running  so  fast  1 

Man  is  the  noblest  work  of  creation. 

Of  all  crimes  wilful  murder  is  the  most  atrocious. 

The  tribes  tfiat  I  visited  are  partially  civilized. 

Herxe  I  conclude,  they  are  in  error. 

The  girls'  books  are  neater  than  the  boys'. 

I  intended  to  transcribe  it. 

Shall  a  character  made  up  of  the  very  worst  passions,  pass  under  the  name 
of  gentleman  ? 

Rhoda  ran  in,  and  told  that  Peter  stood  before  the  gate. 

What  are  latitude  and  longitude  1 

Cicero  was  more  eloquent  than  any  other  Roman— or}  Cicero  was  the  most 
eloquent  of  the  Romans. 

Who  dares  apologize  for  Pizarro  1 — which  is  but  another  name  for  rapacity. 

LESSON  IV. 

TeU  me  whether  you  will  do  it  or  not. 
After  the  straitest[or  strictest]  sect,  I  lived  a  Pharisee. 
We  have  no  more  than  five  loaves  and  two  fishes. 
I  know  not  who  it  was  that  did  it. 

Doubt  not,  little  though  there  be, 
Tliat  I'll  cast  a  crumb  to  thee. 


KEY   TO   FALSE   SYNTAX.  283 

This  rule  is  the  best  that  can  be  given. 

I  have  never  seen  any  other  way. 

These  are  poor  amends  for  the  men  and  treasures  that  we  have  lost 

Dost  thou  know  those  boys  1 

This  is  a  part  of  the  estate  of  my  uncle's  father. 

Many  people  never  learn  to  speak  correctly. 

Some  people  are  rash,  and  others  timid :  these  apprehend  too  much,  tliose  too 

little. 

Is  it  lawful  for  us  to  give  tribute  to  Caesar  or  not  ? 
It  was  not  worth  while  to  preserve  any  permanent  enmity. 
I  no  sooner  saw  my  face  in  it,  than  I  was  startled  at  the  shortness  of  it. 
Every  person  is  answerable  for  his  own  conduct. 
They  are  men  that  scorn  a  mean  action,  and  that  will  exert  themselves  to 

serve  you. 
I  do  not  recollect  ever  to  have  paid  it — the  paying  of  it — the  payment  of  it — 

or,  that  I  ever  paid  it. 

The  stoics  taught  that  all  crimes  are  equal. 
Every  one  of  mese  theories  is  now  exploded. 
Any  of  these  four  will  answer. 
There  is  no  situation  in  which  he  would  be  happy. 
The  boy  that  you  thougJit  so  clever,  has  been  detected  in  stealing. 
I  will  meet  thee  there,  if  thou  please. 
He  is  not  so  sick,  but  that  he  can  laugh. 
These  clothes  do  not  Jit  me. 
The  audience  were  all  very  attentive. 

Wert  thou  some  star,  which  from  the  ruin'd  roof 
Of  shaken  Olympus  by  mischance  did  f all  1 

LESSON  V. 

Was  the  master,  or  were  many  of  the  scholars,  in  the  roonrf 

His  father  and  mother's  consent  was  asked. 

Who  is  he  supposed  to  be  1 

He  is  a  venerable  old  man. 

It  was  then  my  purpose  to  visit  Sicily. 

It  is  only  to  the  learner,  and  him  that  is  in  doubt,  that  this  assistance  IB  rec- 
ommended. 

There  is  not  the  least  hope  of  his  recovery. 

Anger  and  impatience  are  always  unreasonable. 

In  his  letters,  there  is  not  only  correctness,  but  elegance. 

Opportunity  to  do  good  is  the  highest  preferment  tfiat  a  noble  mind  de- 
sires. 

The  year  in  which  he  died  is  not  mentioned. 

Had  I  known  it,  I  should  not  have  gone. 

Was  it  thou,  that  spoke  to  me  ? 

The  house  is  pleasantly  situated. 

He  did  it  as  privately  as  he  possibly  could. 

To  subdue  our  passions — The  subduing  of  our  passions- -The  tubjuga* 
tion  of  our  passions — or,  That  we  subdue  our  passions,  is  the  noblest  of 
conquests. 

James  is  more  diligent  than  thou. 

Words  interwoven  with  sighs  found  out  their  way. 

He  appears  to  be  excessively  diffident. 

The  number  of  our  days  is  with  thee. 

As  a  father  pitieth  his  children,  so  the  Lord  pitieth  them  that  fear  him. 

The  circumstances  of  this  case,  are  different. 

Well  for  us,  if  some  other  such  men  should  rise ! 

A  man  that  is  you  og  in  years,  may  be  old  in  hours,  if  he  lose  no  time. 


284  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

The  chief  captain,  fearing  that  Paul  would  be  pulled  into  pieces  by  them, 
commandea  the  soldiers  to  go  down,  and  to  take  him  by  force  from  among 
them. 

Nay,  weep  not,  gentle  Eros ;  there  arc  left  us 
Ourselves  to  end  ourselves. 

CORRECTIONS  UNDER  THE  GENERAL  RULE. 

Are  there,  then,  more  true  religions  than  one  1 

The  laws  of  Lycurgus  but  substituted  insensibility  for  enjoyment. 

Rain  is  seldom  or  never  seen  at  Lima. 

The  young  bird  raising  its  open  mouth  for  food,  exhibits  a  natural  indication 
of  corporeal  want. 

There  is  much  truth  in  AscJiam's  observation. 

Adopting  the  doctrine  in  which  he  had  been  taught — or,  Adopting  the  doc- 
trine which  had  been  taught  him. 

This  library  contained  more  than  Jive  hundred  thousand  volumes. 

The  Coptic  Alphabet  was  one  of  the  latest  that  were  formed. 

There  are  many  evidences  of  men's  proneness  to  vice. 

To  perceive  nothing,  and  not  to  perceive,  are  the  same — or,  To  perceive 
nothing,  is  the  same  as  not  to  perceive. 

The  king  of  France  or  of  England,  was  to  be  the  umpire. 

He  may  be  said  to  have  saved  the  life  of  a  citizen  j  and,  consequently,  he  is 
entitled  [or,  to  be  entitled]  to  the  reward. 

The  men  had  made  inquiry  for  Simon's  house,  and  were  standing  before  the 
gate. 

Give  no  more  trouble  than  you  cannot  possibly  help. 

That  the  art  of  printing  was  then  unknown,  was  a  circumstance  in  some  re- 
spects favourable  to  the  freedom  of  the  pen. 

An  other  passion  which  the  present  age  is  apt  to  run  into,  is  a  desire  to  make 
children  learn  all  things. 

*  requires  few  talents  to  which  most  men  are  not  born,  or  which  at  least, 
they  may  not  acquire. 

Nor  was  Philip  wanting  in  his  endeavours  to  corrupt  Demosthenes,  as  he 
had  corrupted  most  of  the  leading  men  in  Greece. 

The  Greeks,  fearing  to  be  surrounded,  wheeled  about  and  halted,  with  the 
river  behind  them. 

Poverty  turns  our  thoughts  too  much  upon  the  supplying  of  our  wants  ;  and 
riches,  upon  the  enjoying  of  OUT  superfluities. 

That  brother  should  not  war  with  brother, 
Nor  one  despise  and  grieve  an  other. 

Such  is  the  refuge  of  our  youth  and  age ; 
At  first  from  hope,  at  last  from  vacancy — or, 

Such  is  the  refuge  of  our  youth  and  age ; 
Of  that  from  hope,  of  this  from  vacancy. 

Triumphant  Sylla !  couldst  thou  then  divine, 
By  ought  but  Romans  Rome  should  thus  be  laid  1 


END    OF   TIIE   FIRST  KIT. 


APPENDIX   I. 

(ORTHOGRAPHY.) 

OF  THE  SOUNDS  OF  THE  LETTERS. 

OBS.  1.— The  Names  of  the  letter??,  as  now  commonly  spoken  and  writ- 
ten, are  mostly  framed  with  reference  to  their  powers.  Yet  is  there  no 
letter  of  which  the  name  is  always  identical  with  its  power;  for  A,  E,  I,  O, 
and  U,  are  the  only  letters  which  can  name  themselves,  and  all  these  have 
other  sounds  than  those  which  their  names  express.  Letters,  like  all  other 
things,  must  be  learned  and  spoken  of  by  their  names,  nor  can  they  be 
spoken  of  otherwise ;  yet,  as  the  simple  characters  are  better  known  and 
more  easily  exhibited  than  their  written  names,  the  former  are  often  substi- 
tuted for  the  latter,  and  are  read  as  the  words  for  which  they  are  assumed. 
Hence  the  orthography  of  these  words  has  hitherto  been  left  too  much  to 
mere  fancy  or  caprice;  so  that  many  who  think  themselves  well  educated, 
would  be  puzzled  to  name  on  paper  these  simple  elements  of  all  learning. 
Nay,  there  can  be  found  a  hundred  men  who  can  write  the  names  of 
the  letters  in  Hebrew  or  in  Greek,  for  one  who  can  do  it  properly  in 
English. 

OBS.  2. — The  names  of  the  letters  are  words  of  a  very  peculiar  kind ;  be- 
ing nouns  that  are  at  once  both  proper  and  common.  For,  in  respect  to 
rank,  character,  and  design,  each  letter  is  a  thing  strictly  individual  and 
identical ;  yet,  in  an  other  respect,  it  is  a  comprehensive  sort,  embracing  in- 
dividuals both  various  and  numberless.  The  name  of  a  letter,  therefore, 
should  always  be  written  with  a  capital,  as  a  proper  noun ;  and  should  form 
the  plural  regularly,  as  an  ordinary  appellative.  Thus :  (if  we  adopt  the 
names  now  most  generally  used  in  English  schools:)  A,  Aes;  Bee,  Bees, 
Cee,  Cees;  Dee,  Dees;  E,  Ees ;  Eff,  Effs;  Gee,  Gees;  Aitch,  Aitches;  I 
Jcs;  Jay,  Jays;  Kay,  Kays;  Ett,  Ells;  Em,  Ems;  En,  Ens;  O,  Oes , 
Pee,  Pees ;  Kue,  Kues ;  Ar,  Ars ;  Ess,  Esses ;  Tee,  Tees ;  U,  Ues ;  Vee, 
Vees;  Double-u,  Double-ues ;  Ex,  Exes;  Wy,  Wies ;  Zee,  Zees. 

OBS.  3. — The  terms  long  and  short,  which  are  often  used  to  denote  certain 
vowel  sounds,  being  also  used,  with  a  different  import,  to  distinguish  the 
quantity  of  syllables,  are  frequently  misunderstood :  for  which  reason  we 
nave  substituted  for  them  the  terms  open  and  close — the  former,  to  denote 
the  sound  usually  given  to  a  vowel  when  it  forms  or  ends  an  accented 
syllable ;  as,  ba,  be,  bi,  bo,  bu,  by — the  latter,  to  denote  the  sound  which 
the  vowel  commonly  takes  when  closed  by  a  consonant;  as,  ab,  cb,  ib, 
ob}  ub. 


The  vowel  A  hasybur*  sounds  properly  its  own : 

1.  The  English,  open,  or  long  a;  as  in  fame,  fatour,  efficacious. 

2.  The  French,  close,  or  short  a ;  as  in  bat,  banner,  balance. 

3.  The  Italian,  or  middle  a;  as  in  far,  father,  aha,  comma,  scoria,  to/a. 

4.  The  Dutch,  or  broad  a;  as  in  wall,  warm,  water. 

*  Some  writers  distinguish  from  the  fiost  of  these  sounds  the  grave  sound 
of  a,  heard  in  care,  fair,  there,  &c.     But  Walker  teaches  no  difference. 


286  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

DIPHTHONGS   BEGINNING    WITH   A. 

The  only  proper  diphthong  in  which  a  is  put  first,  is  the  word  ay,  meaning 
yes  ;  in  which  a  has  its  middle  sound,  and  y  that  of  open  e. 

Aa,  when  pronounced  as  an  improper  diphthong,  takes  the  sound  of  close 
a;  as  in  Balaam,  Canaan,  Isaac. 

^E,  a  Latin  improper  diphthong,  generally  has  the  sound  of  open  e ;  aa 
in  Ccesar,  ^enigma,  pcean ;  sometimes  that  of  close  e ;  as  in  apliceresis, 
dueresis,  et  ccztera.  Some  authors  reject  the  a,  and  write  Cesar,  enig- 
ma, &c. 

Ai,  an  improper  diphthong,  generally  has  the  sound  of  open  a;  as  in  Tail, 
sail,  vain.  In  a  final  unaccented  syllable,  it  sometimes  preserves  the  first 
sound  of  a,  as  hi  chilblain,  mortmain;  but  oflener  takes  the  sound  of  close  i; 
as  in  certain,  curtain,  mountain,  villain :  in  said,  saith,  again,  and  against, 
that  of  close  e;  and  in  the  name  Britain,  that  of  close  u. 

Ao,  an  improper  diphthong,  occurs  in  the  word  gaol ;  now  frequently 
written,  as  it  is  pronounced,  jail;  and  in  the  adjective  extraordinary,  and  its 
derivatives,  in  which,  according  to  Walker,  the  a  is  silent. 

Au,  an  improper  diphthong,  is  generally  sounded  like  broad  a;  as  in 
cause,  caught.  Before  n  and  an  other  consonant,  it  has  the  sound  of  middle 
a;  as  in  aunt,Jlaunt,  launch,  laundry.  Gauge  is  pronounced  gage. 

Aw,  an  improper  diphthong,  is  always  sounded  like  broad  a;  as  in  draw, 
drawn,  drawl. 

Ay,  an  improper  diphthong,  like  ai,  has  the  sound  of  open  a;  as  in  day, 
pay,  delay :  in  sayst  and  says,  that  of  close  e. 

TRIPHTHONGS   BEGINNING   WITH  A. 

Awe  is  sounded  au,  like  broad  a.  Aye,  an  adverb  signifying  always,  has 
the  sound  of  open  a  only,  being  different,  both  in  sound  and  spelling,  from 
the  adverb  ay,  yes,  with  which  it  is  often  carelessly  confounded. 

B 

The  consonant  B  has  but  one  sound ;  as  in  boy,  robber,  cub. 

B  is  silent  before  t  or  after  m  in  the  same  syllable;  as  in  debt, 
debtor,  dumb,  lamb.  It  is  heard  in  subtile,  fine,  but  not  in  subtle, 
cunning. 


The  consonant  C  has  two  sounds ;  the  one  hard  like  that  of  kt  the  other 
soft,  of  rather  hissing,  like  that  of  s. 

C  before  a,  o,  u,  I,  r,  t,  or  when  it  ends  a  syllable,  is  generally  hard  like 
k;  as  in  can,  come,  curb,  clay,  crab,  act,  action,  accent,  Jtaccid. 

C  before  e,  i,  or  y,  is  always  soft  like  s;  as  in  cent,  civil,  decency,  acid. 

In  a  few  words  c  takes  the  flat  sound  of  s,  like  that  of  z;  as  in  discern, 
suffice,  sacrifice,  sice. 

C  before  ea,  ia,  ie,  io,  or  eou,  when  the  accent  precedes,  sounds  like  sh ;  aa 
in  ocean,  special,  species,  gracious,  cetaceous. 

C  is  silent  in  czar,  czarina,  victuals,  indict,  muscle,  corpuscle. 

Ch  is  generally  sounded  like  tch :  as  in  church,  chance,  child.  But  in  word* 
derived  from  the  learned  languages,  it  has  the  sound  of  k:  as  in  characier, 
scheme,  catechise,  chorus,  chyle,  patriarch,  drachma,  magna  charta :  except  in 
chart,  charter,  charity.  Ch,  in  words  derived  from  the  French,  takes  the 
sound  of  sh;  as  in  chaise,  machine. 

Arch,  before  a  vowel,  is  pronounced  ark ;  as  in  archives,  archangel,  archi- 
pelago :  except  in  arched,  archer,  archery,  archenemy.  Before  a  consonant, 
It  is  pronounced  artch ;  as  in  archbishop,  archduke. 

Ch  'IB  silent  in  schedule,  schism,  yatch]  drachm. 


APPENDIX    I. LETTERS.  287 

D 

The  general  sound  of  the  consonant  D,  is  heard  in  dogr  eddy,  did. 

D,  in  the  termination  ed,  preceded  by  a  sharp  consonant,  takes  the  sound 
of  t,  when  the  e  is  suppressed  :  as  in  faced,  stuffed,  cracked,  tripped,  passed; 
pronounced,  faste,  stuft,  cract,  tript,  past. 

D  before  ia,  ie,  io,  or  eou,  when  the  accent  precedes,  generally  sounds 
like  j;  as  in  Indian,  soldier,  tedious,  hideous.  So  in  verdure,  arduous,  edu- 
cation. 

E 

The  vowel  E  has  three  sounds  properly  its  own  : 

1.  The  open  or  long;  as  in  me,  mere,  menial,  melodious. 

2.  The  close  or  short ;  as  in  men,  merry,  ebony. 

3.  The  obscure;    as  in  open,  garden,  shovel,  able.     This  third  sound  ig 
scarcely  perceptible,  and  is  barely  sufficient  to  articulate  the  consonant  and 
form  a  syllable. 

E  final  is  mute,  and  belongs  to  the  syllable  formed  by  the  preceding  vowel 
or  diphthong ;  as  in  age,  eve,  ice,  ore.  Except — 1.  In  the  words,  be,  he,  me,  ice, 
she,  and  the,  in  which  it  has  the  open  sound.  2.  In  Greek  and  Latin  words, 
in  which  it  has  its  open  sound,  and  forms  a  distinct  syllable;  as  in  Penel- 
ope, Pasiphae,  Cyanee,  Gargaphie,  Arsinoe,  apostrophe,  catastrojihc,  simile,  ex- 
tempore, epitome.  3.  In  the  terminations  ere,  gre,  tre,  in  which  it  has  the 
sound  of  close  u;  as  in  acre,  meagre,  centre. 

Mute  e,  after  a  single  consonant,  generally  preserves  the  open  or  long 
sound  of  the  preceding  vowel ;  as  in  cane,  here,  pine,  cone,  tune,  thyme : 
except  in  syllables  unaccented;  as  the  last  of  genuine;  and  in  a  few 
monosyllables ;  as  bade,  are,  were,  gone,  shone,  one,  done,  give,  live,  shove, 
love. 

DIPHTHONGS   BEGINNING    WITH   E. 

E  before  an  other  vowel,  in  general,  either  forms  with  it  an  improper 
diphthong,  or  else  belongs  to  a  separate  syllable. 

Ea,  an  improper  diphthong,  mostly  sounds  like  open  e ;  as  in  ear,  fear, 
tea:  frequently  like  close  e;  as  in  earl,  head,  health  :  sometimes  like  open  a; 
as  in  steak,  bear,  forswear:  rarely,  like  middle  a;  as  in  heart,  hearth,  heark- 
en. Ea  unaccented,  sounds  like  close  u;  as  in  vengeance,  pageant. 

Ee,  an  improper  diphthong,  has  the  sounds  of  open  a ;  as  in  eel,  sheep, 
tree.  The  contractions  e'er  and  ne'er,  are  pronounced  air  and  nair. 

Ei,  an  improper  diphthong,  mostly  sounds  like  open  a ;  as  in  reign,  veil ; 
frequently  like  open  e ;  as  in  deceit,  either,  neither,  seize :  sometimes,  like 
openi;  as  in  height,  sleight:  often  in  unaccented  syllables,  like  close  i; 
as  in  foreign,  forfeit,  surfeit,  sovereign :  rarely,  like  close  e;  as  in  heifer, 
nonpareil. 

Eo,  an  improper  diphthong,  in  people  sounds  like  open  e ;  in  feoff,  feqff"- 
ment,  leopard,  jeopardy,  like  close  e;  in  yeoman,  like  open  o;  in  George, 
georgic,  like  close  o;  in  dungeon,  puncheon,  sturgeon,  cf-c.,  like  close  u.  Feod, 
feodal,  feodatory,  are  now  written  as  they  are  pronounced,  feud,  feudal, 
feudatory. 

Eu  and  ew  have  the  diphthongal  sound  of  open  u;  as  \r\feud,  deuce;  jac, 
deio,few,  new.  These  diphthongs  when  initial,  sound  like  yu.  Nouns  be- 
ginning with  this  sound,  require  the  article  a,  and  not  an,  before  them;  as, 
A  European,  a  euer.  After  r  or  rh,  eu  and  ew  are  commonly  sounded  like 
oo ;  as  in  drew,  grew,  screw,  rheumatism. 

In  sew  and  Shrewsbury,  ew  sounds  like  open  o.  Shew  and  ttrew  «l» 
properly  spelled,  as  they  are  pronounced,  show,  straw. 


288  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

JSy,  accented,  has  the  sound  of  open  a;  as  in  bey,  prey,  survey:  unsxj- 
oented,  it  has  the  found  of  open  e  ;  a*  in  alley,  valley,  money.  Key  and  ley 
are  pronounced,  ket,  lee. 

TRIPHTHONGS   BEGINNING   WITH   E. 

Eau,  a  French  triphthong,  sounds  like  open  o ;  as  in  beau,  flambeau,  yerf- 
manteau,  bureau:  except  in  beauty,  and  its  compounds,  in  which  it  IB  pro- 
nounced like  open  u. 

Eon  is  a  combination  of  vowels  sometimes  heard  in  one  syllable,  espe- 
cially after  c  or  g ;  as  in  crus-ta-ceous,  gor-geous.  Walker,  in  his  Rhymin</ 
Dictionary,  gives  one  hundred  and  twenty  words  ending  in  eous,  in  all  o? 
which  he  separates  these  vowels ;  as  in  extra-ne-ous.  And  why,  in  his  Pro- 
nouncing Dictionary,  he  gave  us  several  such  anomalies  as  fa-ba-ce-ous  in 
four  syllables,  and  her-ba-ceous  in  three,  it  is  not  easy  to  tell.  The  best  rule 
is  this :  after  c  or  g,  unite  these  vowels ;  after  the  other  consonants,  separate 
them. 

Ewe  is  a  triphthong  having  the  sound  of  yu.  The  vulgar  pronunciation 
yoe  should  be  carefully  avoided. 

Eye  is  an  improper  triphthong,  pronounced  like  open  i. 

F 

The  consonant  F  has  one  unvaried  sound,  which  is  heard  in  fan,  effort, 
9taff:  except  of,  which,  when  simple,  is  pronounced  ov. 

G 

The  consonant  G  has  two  sounds ;  the  one  liard,  guttural,  and  peculiar  to 
this  letter;  the  other  soft,  like  that  of  j. 

G  before  a,  o,  u,  I,  r,  or  at  the  end  of  a  word,  is  hard ;  as  in  game,  gone, 
gull,  glory,  grace,  log,  bog. 

G  before  e,  i,  or  y,  in  seft  ;  as  in  gem,  ginger,  elegy.  Except — 1.  In  get, 
give,  gewgaw,  finger,  and  a  few  other  words.  2.  When  a  syllable  k  added 
to  a  word  ending  in  g:  as,  long,  longer ;  fog,  foggy. 

G  is  silent  before  m  or  n  in  the  same  syllable ;  as  in  phlegm,  apothegm, 
gnaw,  resign. 

G  when  silent,  usually  lengthens  the  preceding  vowel ;  as  in  resign,  im- 
pugn, impregn. 

Gh  at  the  beginning  of  a  word  has  the  sound  of  g  hard;  as  in  ghost, 
ghostly,  ghastly :  in  other  situations,  it  is  generally  silent ;  as  in  high,  migh- 
ty, plough,  bough,  through. 

Gh  final  sometimes  sounds  like  f;  as  in  laugh,  rough,  tough  :  and  some- 
times, like  g  hard;  as  in  burgh.  In  hough,  lough,  shough,  it  sounds  like  k; 
thus,  hock,  lock,  shock. 

H 

The  sound  of  the  consonant  JET,  (though  articulate  and  audible  when  prop- 
erly uttered,)  is  little  more  than  an  aspirate  breathing.  It  is  heard  in  hat, 
hit,  hot,  hut,  adhere. 

H  at  the  beginning  of  words,  is  always  sounded  ;  except  in  heir,  herb, 
honest,  Jionour,  hospital,  Iwstler,  Iwur,  humble,  humour,  and  their  com- 
pounds. 

//  after  r,  is  always  silent ;  as  rheum,  rhetoric. 

H  final,  preceded  by  a  vowel  in  the  same  syllable,  is  always  silent  j  as  in 
ah,  Sarah  Nineveh. 


The  rowol  7  has  three  sounds  properly  its  own : 

1.  The  open  or  long;  as  in  life,  fine,  time,  find,  bind,  child,  mild,  wild. 


APPENDIX  I. LETTERS.  289 

pin/.    This  is  a  diphthongal  sound,  and  is  equivalent  to  the  sound  of  middle 
a  and  that  of  open  t  quickly  united. 

2.  The  close  or  short ;  as  in  ink,  think,  sinking. 

3.  The  feeble  ;  as  in  divest,  doctrinal,  diversity.    This  sound  is  equivalent 
to  that  of  open  e  uttered  feebly.     /  generally  has  this  sound  when  it  occurs 
at  the  end  of  an  unaccented  syllable :  except  at  the  end  of  Latin  words, 
where  it  is  open  or  long ;  as  in  literati.    In  some  words,  (principally  from 
other  modern  languages,)  i  has  the  full  sound  of  open  e}  under  the  accent ; 
as  in  Porto  Rico,  machine,  magazine,  antique,  shire. 

Accented  i  followed  by  a  vowel,  has  its  open  sound ;  and  the  vowels  be- 
long to  separate  syllables ;  as  in  pliant,  diet,  satiety,  violet,  pious. 

Unaccented  i  followed  by  a  vowel,  has  its  feeble  sound ;  as  in  expatiate, 
obedient,  various,  abstemious. 

DIPHTHONGS  BEGINNING  WITH  I. 

7,  in  the  situation  last  described,  readily  coalesces  with  the  vowel 
which  follows,  and  is  often  sunk  into  the  same  syllable,  forming  a  proper 
diphthong ;  as  in  fustian,  quotient,  question.  The  terminations  cion,  sion, 
and  tion,  are  generally  pronounced  shun ;  cious  and  tious  are  pronounced 
shus. 

Ic  is  commonly  an  improper  diphthong.  le  final  has  the  sound  of  open 
i;  as  in  die,  lie,  pie,  tie.  le  medial  generally  has  the  sound  of  open  e;  as  in 
grief,  thief,  grenadier.  In  friend  and  its  compounds,  it  takes  the  sound  of 
close  e. 

TRIPHTHONGS  BEGINNING   WITH   I. 

The  triphthongs  ieu  and  iew,  sound  like  open  u;  as  in  lieu ,  adieu,  view, 
review. 

The  three  vowels  iou,  in  the  termination  ious,  often  fall  into  one  syllable 
and  form  a  triphthong.  There  are  two  hundred  and  forty-five  words  of  this 
ending ;  and  more  man  two  hundred  derivatives  from  them.  Walker  has 
several  puzzling  inconsistencies  in  their  pronunciation ;  such  &sfas-tid-i-oua 
and  per-fid-ious,  con-ta-girous  and  sac-ri-le-gious.  After  c,  g,  t,  or  x,  these 
vowels  should  coalesce ;  as  in  gra-cious,  re-li-gious,  vex-a-tious,  ob-nox-ious, 
and  about  two  hundred  other  words.  After  the  other  consonants,  let  them 
form  two  syllables ;  (except  when  there  is  a  synseresis  in  poetry ;)  aa  in  du~ 
birous,  o-di-ous,  va-rirous,  en-vi-ous. 

j 

The  consonant  J  always  has  the  sound  of  soft  g ;  as  in  joy,  jewel:  except 
tn  fiallelujah,  better  written  as  it  is  pronounced,  halleluiah. 

K 

The  consonant  K  has  the  sound  of  c  hard ;  and  occurs  where  c  would 
have  its  soft  sound :  as  in  keep,  kind,  smoky. 

K  before  n  is  silent ;  as  in  knave,  know,  knuckle.  It  is  never  doubled,  ex- 
cept in  the  name  Habakkuk.  C  before  it,  doubles  the  sound,  and  shortens 
the  preceding  vowel ;  as  in  cockle,  wicked. 


The  consonant  L  has  a  sott  liquid  sound;  as  in  line,  lily,  roll,  follow. 
L  is  sometimes   silent;  as  in  alms,  almond,  calf,  chalk,  could,  would, 
should. 

M 

The  consonant  M  has  but  one  sound ;  as  in  map,  murmur,  mammon.  It 
Is  never  silent.     Comptroller  is  pronounced  controller. 

25 


290  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

N 

The  consonant  N  has  two  sounds :  the  pure;  as  in  nun,  bannt     j 
and  the  ringing  sound  of  ng ;  as  in  tiiink,  mangle,  conquer,  congr  -i»p 
ing,  twinkling.     The  latter  sound  should  be  carefully  preserved  LQ  h-j  %  w. 
ending  in  in g ;  and  in  such  others  as  require  it. 

N  final  preceded  by  m,  is  silent;  as  in  hymn,  solemn. 

o 

The  vowel  O  has  three  sounds  properly  its  own  : 

1.  The  open  or  long;  as  in  no,  note,  opiate,  opacity ',  domain. 

2.  The  close  or  short ;  as  in  not,  nor,  torrid,  dollar. 

3.  The  slender ;  as  in  prove,  move,  who,  to,  do,  tomb. 

0  in  many  words   sounds   like   close  u ;   as   in   love,  sJwve,  son,  come, 
nothing,  dost,  attorney,  gallon,  dragon.     In  the  termination  on  immediately 
after  the  accent,  o  is  often  sunk  into  a  sound  scarcely  perceptible  like 
that  of  obscure  e;  as  in  mason,  person.     One  is  pronounced  icur*;  and  once, 
wunce. 

DIPHTHONGS   BEGINNING    WITH   O. 

Oa,  an  improper  diphthong,  has  the  sound  of  open  o ;  as  in  boat,  coal,  roach 
except  in  broad  and  grout,  which  have  the  sound  of  broad  a. 

Oe,  an  improper  diphthong,  when  final,  has  the  sound  of  open  o  ;  as  in 
doe,  foe,  throe:  except  in  canoe.,  shoe,  pronounced  canoo,  shoo.  (E,  a  Lat- 
in diphthong,  generally  sounds  like  open  e;  as  in  Antceci,  foetus:  some- 
times like  close  e;  as  in  fcetid.  Some  authors  reject  the  o,  and  write 
fetid,  &c. 

01  is  generally  a  proper  diphthong,  uniting  the  sound  of  close  o  or  broad  a, 
and  that  of  open  e;  as  in  boil,  coil,  soil,  rejoice.     But  the  vowels  sometimes 
belong  to  separate  syllables ;  as  in  stoic.     Oi  unaccented,  sometimes  has  the 
Bound  of  close  i;  as  in  avoirdupois,  connoisseur,  tortoise.     Choir  is  now  fre- 
quently written  as  it  is  pronounced,  quire. 

00.  an  improper  dipnthong,  generally  has  the  slender  sound  of  o;  as 
in  coo,  too,  u'oo,  fool,  room.      It  has  a  shorter  sound   in  foci,  good,  wood, 
stood,  wool ;  that  of  close  u,  in  blood  and  fiood ;  and  that  of  open  o,  in  door 
and  Jloor. 

Ou  is  generally  a  proper  diphthong,  uniting  the  sound  of  close  o,  and 
that  of  u  sounded  as  slender  o  or  oo ;  as  in  bound,  found,  sound,  ounce, 
thou. 

Ou  is  also  an  improper  diphthong ;  and,  as  such,  it  has  six  sounds : 

1.  That  of  close  u;  as  in  rough,  tough,  young,  fiourish. 

2.  That  of  broad  a ;  as  in  ought,  bought,  thought. 

3.  That  of  open  o ;  as  in  court,  dough,  four,  though. 

4.  That  of  close  o;  only  in  cough,  trough,  lough,  shough. 

5.  That  of  slender  o  or  oo ;  as  in  soup,  you,  through. 

6.  That  of  oo,  shortened ;  only  in  uould,  could,  should. 

Ow  generally  sounds  like  the  proper  diphthong   ou ;  as  in  brown,  dowry, 
now,  shower :  but  it  often  has  the  sound  of  open  o ;  as  in  know,  show,  stow. 
Oy  is  sounded  like  oi;  a*  in  joy,  toy. 

TRIPHTHONGS   BEGINNING   WITH   O. 

Oeu  is  a  French  triphthong  occurring  in  the  word  manoeuvre,  whieli  w 
pronounced  in  English  man-oo-vur.  Oice  is  an  improper  triphthong,  ill 
which  the  o  only  is  heard,  and  with  its  long  open  sound. 

P 

The  consonant  P  has  but  one  sound ;  which  is  heard  in  pen,  sup,  supper* 
It  is  sometimes  silent ;  as  in  psalm,  receipt,  corps. 


APPENDIX  I. — LETTERS.  291 

Ph  generally  sounds  like./*/  as  in  philosophy.  In  Stephen  and  nej)hewt 
ph  has  the  sound  of  v.  The  h  after  p,  is  silent  in  diphthong,  triphthong,  naph- 
tha, ophthalmic;  arid  both  the p  and  the  h  are  silent  in  apophthegm,  phthisis, 
plithisical.  From  the  last  three  words,  ph  is  sometimes  dropped. 

a 

The  consonant  Q  has  the  sound  of  k,  and  is  always  followed  by  the  vow- 
el u,  which,  in  words  purely  English,  is  sounded  like  w ;  as  in  queen,  quar- 
ter, request.  In  some  words  of  French  origin,  the  u  is  silent ;  as  in  coquet, 
liquor,  burlesque. 

R 

The  consonant  /?,  at  the  beginning  of  words,  has  a  rough  sound ;  as 
in  rose,  roam;  in  other  situations,  a  smoother  one;  as  in  proud,  harrow, 
barber. 

s 

The  consonant  S1  has  a  sharp,  hissing  sound ;  as  in  sad,  sister,  thus :  and 
a  flat  sound,  like  that  of  z;  as  in  rose,  dismal. 

S,  at  the  beginning  of  words,  or  after  any  of  the  sharp  consonants,  is  al- 
ways sharp ;  as  in  sec,  steps,  cliffs,  sits,  stocks,  smiths. 

S,  after  any  of  the  flat  mutes,  or  at  the  end  of  words  when  not  preceded 
by  a  sharp  consonant,  is  generally  flat :  as  in  eyes,  trees,  beds,  bags,  calves. 
Ss  is  generally  sharp. 

S,  m  the  termination  sion,  takes  the  sound  of  sh,  after  a  consonant; 
as  in  aspersion,  session :  and  that  of  zh,  after  a  vowel ;  as  in  invasion, 
elision. 

S  is  silent  in  isle,  island,  aisle,  demesne,  viscount. 

T 

The  general  sound  of  the  consonant  T,  is  heard  in  time,  letter,  set. 

T,  immediately  after  the  accent,  takes  the  sound  of  tch,  before  u,  and 
generally  also  before  eou:  as  in  nature,  feature,  virtue,  righteous,  cour- 
teous :  when  s  or  x  precedes,  it  takes  this  sound  before  ia  or  io ;  as  in 
fustian,  bastion,  mixtion.  But  the  general  sound  of  t  after  the  accent,  when 
followed  by  i  and  an  other  vowel,  is  that  of  sh;  as  in  creation,  patient, 
cautious. 

T  is  sometimes  silent;  as  in  often,  rustle,  whistle. 

Th  represents  an  elementary  sound.  It  is  either  sharp,  as  in  thing,  ethi- 
cal, thinketii ;  or  flat,  as  in  this,  whither,  thither. 

Th  initial  is  sharp;  as  in  thank:  except  in  than,  that,  the,  thee,  their,  them, 
then,  thence,  there,  tJiese,  they,  thine,  this,  thither,  those,  thou,  thus,  thy,  and 
their  compounds. 

Th  final  is  also  sharp;  as  in  south:  except  in  beneath,  booth,  with,  and 
several  verbs  in  th,  which  are  frequently  (and  more  properly)  written  with 
final  e ;  as  soothe,  smoothe,  bequeathe. 

Tli  medial  is  sharp,  when  preceded  or  followed  by  a  consonant;  as  in 
swarthy,  athwart :  except  in  brethren,  bur  then,  farther,  farthing,  murther, 
northern,  worthy. 

Th  between  two  vowels,  is  generally  flat  in  words  purely  English  ;  as  in 
gather,  neither,  whither :  and  sharp  in  words  from  the  learned  languages ;  aa 
in  atheist,  ether,  method. 

Th  in  Thames,  Tliomas,  thyme,  asthma,  phthisic,  and  their  compounds,  is 
pronounced  like  L 

u 

The  vowel  U  has  three  sounds  properly  its  own : 

1.  The  open,  long,  or  diphthongal ;  as  in  tube,  cubic,  juvenile 


292  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

2.  The  close  or  short ;  as  in  tub,  butter,  justice. 

3.  The  middle ;  as  in  pull,  pulpit,  artful. 

U  forming  a  syllable  by  itself,  is  nearly  equivalent  in  sound  to  you,  and  re- 
quires the  article  a,  and  not  an,  before  it ;  as,  a  union. 

Bury  and  busy  are  pronounced  berry,  bizzy.  Their  compounds  are 
similar. 

After  r  or  rh,  open  u,  and  the  diphthongs  ue  and  ui,  take  the  sound  of  oo; 
as  in  rude,  rhubarb,  rue,  rueful,  fruit,  fruitful. 

DIPHTHONGS  BEGINNING   WITH  U. 

U,  in  the  proper  diphthongs  ua,  ue,  ui,  uo,  uy,  has  the  sound  of  w  or  oo 
feeble ;  as  in  persuade,  query,  quell,  quiet,  languid,  quote,  obloquy. 

Ua,  an  improper  diphthong,  has  the  sound — 1.  of  middle  a;  as  in  guard, 
guardian:  2.  of  dose  a;  as  in  guarantee,  piquant:  3.  of  obscure  e;  as  in  vic- 
tuals and  its  compounds:  4.  of  open  u;  as  in  mantuamaker. 

Ue,  an  improper  diphthong,  has  the  sound — 1.  of  open  u;  as  in  blue,  en- 
sue, ague :  2.  of  close  e ;  as  in  guest :  3.  of  obscure  e ;  as  in  league,  an- 
tique. 

Ui,  an  improper  diphthong,  has  the  sound — 1.  of  open  i;  as  guide,  guile: 
2.  of  close  i ;  as  in  conduit,  circuit :  3.  of  open  u  ;  as  in  juice,  suit. 

Uy,  an  improper  diphthong,  has  the  sound — 1.  of  open  y;  asm  buy:  2.  of 
feeble  y,  or  open  e  feeble;  as  in  plaguy. 

TRIPHTHONGS   BEGINNING   WITH   U. 

Uai  is  pronounced  like  'way;  as  in  guai-a-cum,  quail,  quaint. 
Uaw  is  sounded  like  wa  in  water;  as  in  squaw,  a  female  Indian. 
Uay  has  the  sound  of  way,  as  in  Pa-ra-guay ;  except  in  quay,  "which 
Walker  pronounces  kee. 

Uea  and  uee  are  sounded  wee  ;  as  in  queasy,  queer,  squeal,  squeeze. 
Uoi  and  uoy  are  sounded  woi ;  as  in  quoit,  buoy. 


The  consonant  V always  has  a  sound  like  that  of/  flattened;  as  in  Joufi, 
vulture.  It  is  never  silent 

vv 

W,  as  a  consonant,  has  the  sound  heard  in  wine,  win,  being  a  sound  less 
vocal  than  that  of  oo,  and  depending  more  upon  the  Hps. 

W  before  h,  is  pronounced  as  if  it  followed  the  h;  as  in  what,  when.  Be- 
fore r  it  is  always  silent ;  as  in  wrath,  wrench :  so  in  whole,  whoop,  sword, 
answer,  two. 

Wis  never  used  alone  as  a  vowel ;  except  in  some  Welsh  names,  in  which 
it  is  equivalent  to  oo;  as  in  Cwm  Cothy.  In  a  diphthong,  when  heard,  it 
has  the  power  of  u;  as  in  brow:  but  it  is  frequently  silent;  as  injtow, 
snow,  <$*c. 

W,  when  sounded  before  vowels,  being  reckoned  a  consonant,  we  have  no 
diphthongs  or  triphthongs  beginning  witn  this  letter. 


The  consonant  X  has  a  sharp  sound,  like  /»;  as  in  ox :  and  a  Jlat  one, 
like  gz  ;  as  in  example. 

X is  sharp,  when  it  ends  an  accented  syllable;  as  in  exit,  excellence:  or 
wnen  it  precedes  an  accented  syllable  beginning  with  a  consonant;  as  in 
expound,  expunge. 

X.  unaccented,  is  generally  flat  when  the  next  syllable  begins  with  a  vow- 
el ;  as  in  exist,  exotic. 


AiTEXDEX   I. LETTERS.  293 

X  initial,  in  Greek  proper  names,  has  the  sound  of  z ;  as  in 

Xantippc,  Xenophon,  Xerxes. 


y,  as  a  consonant,  has  the  sound  heard  in  yard,  youth ;  being  rather  less 
vocal  than  the  feeble  sound  of  i  or  y,  and  serving  merely  to  modify  that  of  a 
succeeding  vowel,  with  which  it  is  quickly  united. 

y,  as  a  vowel,  has  the  same  sounds  as  i : 

1.  The  open  or  long;  as  in  cry,  thyme,  cycle. 

2.  The  close  or  short  j  as  in  system,  symptom,  cynic. 

3.  The  feeble;  (like  open  e feeble;)  as  in  cymar,  cyckddal,  mercy. 

The  vowels  i  and  y  have,  in  general,  exactly  the  same  sound  under  simi- 
lar circumstances ;  and,  in  forming  derivatives,  the  one  is  often  changed  for 
the  other:  as  in  city,  cities;  tie,  tying;  easy,  easily. 

Y,  before  a  vowel  heard  in  the  same  syllable,  is  reckoned  a  consonant; 
we  have,  therefore,  no  diphthongs  or  triphthongs  commencing-  with  this 
letter. 

z 

The  coDSonaot  .Z  always  has  the  sound  of  8  fat;  is  i*  breeze,  zenith. 


APPENDIX  II. 

(ETYMOLOGY.) 

OF   DERIVATION. 

Derivation  is  a  species  of  Etymology,  which  explains  the  various  method* 
by  which  those  derivative  words  which  are  not  formed  by  mere  grammatical 
inflections,  are  deduced  from  their  primitives. 

Most  of  those  words  which  are  regarded  as  primitives  in  English,  may  be 
traced  to  ulterior  sources,  and  many  of  them  are  found  to  be  compounds  or 
derivatives  in  other  languages.  A  knowledge  of  the  Saxon,  Latin,  Greek, 
and  French  languages,  will  throw  much  light  on  this  subject.  But  as  the 
learner  is  supposed  to  be  anacquainted  wi*h  those  languages,  we  shall  not 
go  beyond  the  precincts  of  our  own  ;  except  to  show  him  the  origin  aad 
primitive  import  of  some  of  our  definitive  and  connecting  particles,  aiid  to 
explain  the  prefixes  and  terminations  which  are  frequently  employed  to  form 
English  derivatives. 

The  rude  and  cursory  languages  of  barbarous  n&fv>ns,  to  whom  literature 
is  unknown,  are  among  those  transitory  things  which  by  the  hand  of  time 
are  irrecoverably  buried  in  oblivion.  The  fabric  of  the  English  language  i& 
undoubtedly  of  Saxon  origin  ;  but  what  was  the  form  of  the  language  spoken 
by  the  Saxons,  when  about  the  year  450  they  entered  Britain,  cannot  now 
be  known.  It  was  probably  a  dialect  of  the  Gothic  or  Teutonic.  This  An- 
glo-Saxon dialect,  being  the  nucleus,  received  large  accessions  from  other 
tongues  of  the  north,  from  the  Norman  French,  and  from  the  more  polished 
languages  of  Rome  and  Greece,  to  form  the  modern  English.  The  speech 
of  our  rude  and  warlike  ancestors  thus  gradually  improved,  as  Christianity, 
civilization,  and  knowledge,  advanced  the  arts  of  life  in  Britain  ;  and  as 
early  as  the  tenth  century,  it  became  a  language  capable  of  expressing-  all 
the  sentiments  of  a  civilized  people.  From  the  time  of  Alfred,  its  pro- 
gress may  be  traced  by  means  of  writings  which  remain  }  but  it  can 
scarcely  be  called  English  till  about  the  thirteenth  century.  And  iqr  two 
or  three  centuries  later,  it  was  so  different  from  the  modern  English,  as  to 
be  scarcely  intelligible  to  most  readers  ;  but,  gradually  improving  by  means 
upon  which  we  cannot  here  dilate,  it  at  length  became  what  we  now  find  it, 
a  language,  copious,  strong,  refined,  and  capable  of  no  inconsiderable  degree 
of  harmc-ny. 

The  following  is  an  explanation  of  the  Saxon  letters  employed  below  : 

abcdefghij     klmnopq 
abcbcpshi         klmnopc? 
r     stthuvwxyz. 


DERIVATION  OF  THE  ARTICLES. 

1.  According  to  Home  Tooke,  THE  is  the  Saxon  $e  from  Sean  to  take; 
and  is  nearly  equivalent  in  meaning  to  that  or  those.  We  find  it  written  in 
ancient  works,  re,  se,  see,  ye,  te,  5e,  and  the  ;  and,  tracing  it  through  what 
we  suppose  to  be  the  oldest  of  these  forms,  we  rather  consider  it  the  impera- 
tive of  peon  to  see, 


APPENDIX  H. DERIVATION.  295 

2.  AN  is  the  Sa,  on  an,  ane,  an,  ONE  ;  and  by  dropping  n  before  a  con- 
sonant becomes  a.  Gawin  Douglas,  an  ancient  English  writer,  wrote  one, 
even  before  a  corsonant;  as,  "  Ana  book" — "Ane  lang  spere" — "Ane. 
volume." 

DERIVATION  OF  NOUNS. 

In  English,  Nouns  are  derived  from  nouns,  from  adjectives,  from  verbs, 
or  from  participles. 

I.  Nouns  are  derived  from  nouns : 

1.  By  adding  ship,  dom,  rick,  wick,  or,  ate,  hood,  or  head:  as,  fellow,  fel- 
lowship ;  king,  kingdom ;  bishop,  bishoprick ;  bailiff,  bailiwick ;  senate,  sena- 
tor ;   tetrarck,  tetrarchate;   child,  childhood;    God,   Godhead.     These  gene- 
rally denote  dominion,  office,  or  character. 

2.  By  adding  ian:  as,  music,  musician;  physic,  physician.     These  gene 
rally  denote  profession. 

3.  By  adding  y  or  ery:  as,  slave,  slavery ;  fool,  foolery ;  scene,  scenery, 
cutler,  cutlery;  grocer,  grocery.     These  sometimes  denote  a  state,  or  habit  of 
action  ;  sometimes,  an  artificer's  wares  or  shop. 

4.  By  adding  age  or  ade:  as,  patron,  patronage;  porter,  porterage  ;  band, 
bandage;  lemon,  lemonade. 

5.  By  adding  kin,  let,  ling,  ock,  el,  or  erel ;  as,  lamb,  lambkin ;  river,  riv- 
ulet,; duck,  duckling;  hill,  hillock;  run,  runnel;  cock,  cockerel.     These  de- 
note little  things,  and  are  called  diminutives. 

G.  By  adding  ist:  as,  psalm,  psalmist;  botany,  botanist.  These  denote 
persons  devoted  to,  or  skilled  in,  the  subject  expressed  by  the  primitive. 

7.  By  prefixing  an  adjective,  or  another  noun,  and  forming  a  compound 
word ;  as,  holiday,  foreman,  statesman,  tradesman. 

II.  Nouns  are  derived  from  adjectives : 

1.  By  adding  ness,  ity,  ship,  dom,  or  hood:   as,  good,  goodness;   real, 
reality;  hard,  hardship  ;  wise,  wisdom;  false,  falsehood. 

2.  By  changing  t  into  ce  or  cy :  as,  radiant,  radiance;  consequent,  conse- 
quence; flagrant,  fiagrancy;  current,  currency. 

3.  By  changing  some  of  the  letters,  and  adding  t  or  th:  as,  long,  length. ; 
broad,  breadth ;  high,  heigfit.     The  nouns  included  under  these  three  heads, 
generally  denote  abstract  qualities,  and  are  called  abstract  nouns. 

4.  By  adding  ard:  as,  drunk,  drunkard;  dull,  dullard.     These  denote 
the  character  of  a  person. 

5.  By  adding  ist :  as,  sensual,  sensualist ;  royal,  royalist.     These  denote 
persons  devoted,  addicted,  or  attached,  to  something. 

III.  Nouns  are  derived  from  verbs : 

1.  By  adding  ment,  ance,  ure,  or  age:  as,  punish,  punishment;  repent,  re- 
pentance; forfeit,  forfeiture ;  stow,  stowage;  equip,  equipage. 

2.  By  changing  the  termination  of  the  verb,  into  sc,  ce,  sion,  tion,  ation, 
orition;  as,  expand,  expanse,  expansion;  pretend,  pretence,  pretension;  in- 
vent, invention ;  create,  creation ;  omit,  omission  ;  provide,  provision ;  reform, 
reformation  ;   oppose,  opposition.     These  denote  the  act  of  doing,  or  the 
thing  done. 

3.  By  adding  er  or  or:  as,  hunt,  hunter;  write,  writer;  collect,  collector . 
These  generally  denote  the  doer. 

4.  Nouns  and  verbs  ere  sometimes  alike  in  orthography,  but  different  in 
pronunciation :  as,  a  house,  to  Jiouse  ;  a  reb'el,  to  rebel' ;  a  rec'ord,  to  record'. 
Sometimes  they  are  wholly  alike,  and  are  distinguished  only  by  the  con- 
struction :  as,  love,  to  love  ;  fear,  to  fear  ;  sleep,  to  sleep. 

IV.  Nouns  are  often  derived  from  participles  in  ing.     Such  nouns  are 
usually  distinguished  from  participles,  only  by  their  construction:   aa,  a 
meeting,  the  understanding,  murmurings,  disputings. 


296  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

DERIVATION  OP  ADJECTIVES. 

In  English,  Adjectives  are  derived  from  nouns,  from  adjectives,  from 
verbs,  or  from  participles. 

I.  Adjectives  are  derived  from  nouns  : 

1.  By  adding  ous,  ious,  eous,  y,  fy,  ic,  al,  ical,  or  ine :  (sometimes  with 
an  omission  or  change  of  some  of  the  final  letters:)  as,  danger,  dangerous; 
glory,  glorious;    right,   righteous;    rock,  rocky;    cost,   costly;    poet^pcetic  ; 
nation,  national ;  met/wd,  methodical;  vertex,   vertical;  clergy,  clerical;  ada- 
mant, adamantine.     Adjectives  thus  formed,  generally  apply  the  properties 
of  their  primitives,  to  the  nouns  to  which  they  relate. 

2.  By  adding  ful :    as,  fear,  fearful  ;   clieer,  cheerful  ;  grace,  graceful. 
These  denote  abundance. 

3.  By  adding  some:  as,  burden,  burdensome;  game,  gamesome.     These 
denote  plenty,  but  with  some  diminution. 

4.  By  adding  en:  as,  oak,  oaken;  silk,  silken.     These  generally  denote 
the  matter  of  which  a  thing  is  made. 

5.  By  adding  ly  or  ish  :  as,  friend,  friendly  ;  child,  childish.     These  de- 
note resemblance ;  for  ly  signifies  like. 

6.  By  adding  able  or  ible :  a.s,  fashion,  fashionable  ;  access,  accessible.     But 
these  terminations  are  generally  added  to  verbs. 

7.  By  adding  less :  as,  house,  houseless ;  death,  deathless.     These  denote 
privation  or  exemption. 

8.  Adjectives  from  proper  names,  take  various  terminations :  as,  America, 
American  ;    England,  English  ;    Dane,  Danish  ;    Portugal,    Portuguese 
Plato,  Platonic. 

9.  By  adding  ed.:  as,  saint,  sainted;  bigot,  bigoted.     These  are  participial, 
and  are  often  joined  with  other  adjectives  to  form  compounds ;  as,  three- 
sided,  bare-footed,  long-cared,  hundred-handed,  flat-nosed. 

10.  Nouns  are  often  converted  into  adjectives,  without  change  of  termi- 
nation :  as,  paper  currency,  a  gold  chain. 

11.  Adjectives  are  derived  from  adjectives : 

1.  By  adding  ish  or  some:  as,  white,  whitish;  lone,  lonesome.     These  de- 
note quality  with  diminution. 

2.  By  prefixing  dis,  in,  or  un:  as,  honest,  dishonest;  consistent,  inconsis- 
tent; wise,  unwise.     These  express  a  negation  of  the  quality  denoted  by 
their  primitives. 

3.  By  adding  y  or  ly:  as,  swarth,  swarthy ;  good,  goodly.     Of  these  there 
are  but  few ;  for  almost  all  derivatives  of  the  latter  form,  are  adverbs. 

III.  Adjectives  are  derived  from  verbs : 

1.  By  adding  able  or  ible :  (sometimes  with  a  change  of  some  of  the  final 
letters:)  as,  perish,  perishable;  vary,  variable;  convert,  convertible;  divide, 
divisible.     These  denote  susceptibility. 

2.  By  adding  ive  or  ory :  (sometimes  with  a  change  of  some  of  the  final 
letters:)  as,  elect,  elective;  interrogate,  interrogative,  interrogatory ;  defend, 
defensive ;  defame,  defamatory. 

3.  Words  ending  in  ate,  are  mostly  verbs :  but  some  of  them  may  be  em- 
ployed as  adjectives,  in  the  same  form,  especially  in  poetry :  as,  reprobate, 
complicate. 

IV.  Adjectives  are  derived  from  participles : 

1.  By  prefixing  un:  as,  unyielding,  unregarded,  undeserved. 

2.  By  combining  the  participle  with  some  word  which  does  not  belong  to 
the  verb;  as,  wayfaring,  hollow-sounding,  long-drawn. 

3.  Participles  often  become  adjectives  without  change  of  form.     Such 
adjectives  are  distinguished  from  participles  only  by  the  construction :  as, 
"  A  lasting  ornament" — "  The    starving  chymist" — "  Words  of  learned 
length." 


APPENDIX   IL DERIVATION.  297 

DERIVATION  OP  THE  PRONOUNS. 

The  English  pronouns  are  all  of  Saxon  origin.  The  following  appears  to 
be  their  derivation : 

Eng.  I,  my  or  mine,  me;  we}  our  or  ours,  us. 

Sax.  ic,  rnyn,  me;  ye,  ujie  Uj-. 

Eng.  thou,   thy  or  thine,  thee ;  ye,  your  or  yours,  you. 

Sax.   fcu,  fcm,  fte;  ge,  eopeji,  eop. 

Eng.  he,  his,  him ;  they,  their  or  theirs,  tlie.ni. 

Sax.   he,  hyr,  him ;  hi,  heji,  or  Seojia,  hem. 

Eng.  she,  her    or  hers,  her;  they,  their  or  theirs,  them. 

Sax.   heo,  hejia  or  hyjia,  heji ;  hi,  heji,  or  Scoria,  hem. 

Eng.  it,  its,  it ;  they,  their  or  theirs,  them. 

Sax.  hie  hyr ,  hie ;  hi,  heji,  or  Seojia,  hem. 

The  plurals  and  oblique  cases  do  not  all  appear  to  be  regular  derivatives 
from  the  nominative  singular.  Many  of  these  pronouns,  as  well  as  a  vast 
number  of  other  words  of  frequent  use  in  the  language,  were  variously  writ- 
ten by  the  old  English  and  Anglo-Saxon  authors.  He  who  traces  the  his- 
tory of  our  language  will  meet  with  them  under  all  the  following  forms,  and 
perhaps  more : 

1.  I,  J,  Y,  y,  y,  i,  ic,  die,  ich,  ic, — My,  mi,  min,  MINE,  myne, 
myn,  myn, — ME,  mee,  me; — WE,  wee,  ve,  j>e, — OUR  or  OUES, 
oure,  ujie — us,  ous,  vs,  ur. 

2.  THOU,  thoue,  thow,  thowe,  thti,  »u, — THY,  thi,  thin,  THINB 
thyne,  thyn,  5in, — THEE,  the,  &e  ; — YE,  yee,  ze,  zee,  se. — YOUD 
or  YOURS,  youre,  zour,  sour,  soure,  eopej*, — YOU,  youe,  yow, 
sou,  zou,  ou,  mh,  eop. 

3.  HE,  hee,  hie,  hi,  he, — ms,  hise,  is,  hys,  hyse,  ys,  ys,  hys, 
hyr, — HIM,  hine,  hen,  hyne,  hym,  hym,  im,  him ; — THEY,  thay, 
thei,   the,  tha,  thai,   thii,  yai,  hi,  hii,  hy,  his,  hi — THEIR  or 
THEIRS,  ther,  theyr,  theyrs,  thair,  thare,  hare,  here,  her,  hire, 
hyna,  seojia, — THEM,  theym,  thaym,  thaim,  thame,  tham,  em, 
hem,  heom,  horn. 

4.  SHE,  shee,  sche,  scho,  sho,  rca3,  reo,  heo, — HER,  [posses- 
sive,] hur,  hir,  hire,  hyr,  hyre,  hyjie,  hyrci,  hejia, — HER,  [objec- 
tive,] hir,  hire,  hen. 

5.  IT,  itt,  hyt,  hytt,  yt,  ye,  hit,  le,  hie.     According  to  Home 
Tooke,  this  pronoun  is  from  the  perfect  participle  of  hseean,  to 
name,  and  signifies  the  said ;  but  Dr.  Alexander  Murray  makes 
it  the  neuter  of  a  declinable  adjective,  "  he,  heo,  hita,  this}1 — 
Hist.  Lang.  v.  i.  315. 

The  relatives  are  derived  from  the  same  source,  and  have  passed  through 
similar  changes,  or  varieties  in  orthography ;  as, 

1.  WHO,  ho,  wha,  hwa,  qua,  quha,  hpa, — WHOSE,  whos, 
quhois,  quhais,  quhase,  hpser, — WHOM,  whom,  quhum,  quhome, 
hwom,  hpam. 

2.  WHICH,  whiche,  whyche,  whilch,  wych,  quilch,  quilk, 
quhilk,  hwilc,  hpilc. 

3.  WHAT,  hwat,  hwaet,  hwet,  quhat,  quthat,  qua  that?  hwa 
thaf,  hpa  base.     This  pronoun  appears  to  have  been  originally 


298  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

a  compound  of  who  and  that,  though  the  Anglo-Saxons  wrote 
it  as  one  word,  hj>se&.  Its  compound  signification  strengthens 
this  idea  of  its  formation. 

4.  THAT,  sas,  »sec,  fce.  Home  Tooke  supposes  this  word 
(as  well  as  the  article  the)  to  have  been  originally  the  perfect 
participle  of  scan,  to  take. 

From  its  various  uses,  the  word  that  is  called  sometimes  a  pronoun, 
sometimes  an  adjective,  and  sometimes  a  conjunction ;  but,  in  respect 
Lo  derivation,  it  is,  doubtless,  one  and  the  same. — As  an  adjective  it 
was  formerly  applicable  to  a  plural  noun  j  as,  "  Thai  holy  ordres." — 
Dr.  Martin. 

DERIVATION  OF  VERBS. 

In  English,  Verbs  are  derived  from  nouns,  from  adjectives,  or  from 
verbs. 
I.  Verbs  are  derived  from  nouns. 

1.  By  adding  ize,  ise,  en,  or  ate;  as,  author,  authorize;  metJiod,  method- 
ise; length,  lengthen;   origin,  originate.     The  termination  ize  is  of  Greek 
origin ;  and  ise  of  French :  the  former  only  should  be  employed  in  forming 
English  derivatives. 

2.  By  changing  a  consonant,  or  by  adding  mute  e :  as,  advice,  advise ; 
"bath,  bathe;  breath,  breathe. 

II.  Verbs  are  derived  from  adjectives : 

1.  By  adding  en,  ate,  or  ize;  as,  deep,  deepen;  domestic,  domesticate;  civU} 
civilize. 

2.  Many  adjectives  become  verbs,  without  change  of  form :  as,  warm,  to 
warm ;  dry,  to  dry ;  black,  to  black ;  forward,  to  forward 

III.  Verbs  are  derived  from  verbs : 

By  prefixing  a,  be,  dis,  for,  fore,  mis,  over,  out,  un,  under,  up,  or  with  :  as, 
rise,  arise ;  sprinkle,  besprinkle ;  own,  disown ;  bid,  forbid ;  see,  foresee 
take,  mistake ;  look,  overlook ;  run,  outrun ;  fasten,  unfasten ;  go,  undergo 
hold,  uphold;  draw,  withdraw. 

DERIVATION  OF  PARTICIPLES. 

All  English  Participles  are  derived  from  English  verbs,  in  the  manner  ex- 
plained  under  the  head  of  Etymology,  and  when  foreign  participles  are  in- 
troduced into  our  language,  they  are  not  participles  with  us,  but  belong  to 
some  other  part  of  speech. 

DERIVATION  OF  ADVERBS. 

1.  In  English,  many  Adverbs  are  derived  from  adjectives  by  adding  ly} 
which  is  an  abbreviation  for  like :   as,  candid,  candidly ;  sordid,  sordidly 
Most  adverbs  of  manner  are  thus  formed. 

2.  Many  adverbs  are  compounds  formed  from  two  or  more   English 
words;    as,  herein,  thereby,  to-day,  always,   already,   elsewhere,   sometimes, 
wherewithal.     The  formation  and  the  meaning  of  these  are  in  general  suffi- 
ciently obvious. 

3.  About  seventy  adverbs  are  formed  by  means  of  the  prefix  a;  as,  Abreast, 
abroad,  across,  afresh,  away,  ago,  awry,  astray. 

4.  Needs  is  a  contraction  of  need  is ;  prithee,  of  /  pray  thee ;   alone,  of 
uU  one ;  only,  of  one  like;  anon,  of  in  one  [instant;]  never,  of  ne  ever;  [not 
ever.] 

5.  Very  is  from  the  French  veray  or  vrai,  true ;  still,  is  from  the  impera- 
tive of  the  Saxon  ptellan,  to  put;  else  is  from  the  imperative  of  alepan,  to 
dismiss.    Rather  is  the  comparative  of  the  ancient  rath,  soon. 


APPENDIX   H. — DERIVATION.  299 

DERIVATION  OF  CONJUNCTIONS. 

The  English  Conjunctions  are  mostly  of  Saxon  origin.  The  best  (Tic- 
lonaries  of  our  language  give  us,  for  the  most  part,  the  same  words  in 
Saxon  characters;  but  Home  Tooke,  in  his  Diversions  of  Purity,  p 
earned  and  curious  work  which  the  advanced  student  may  peruse  with 
advantage,  traces  these  and  many  other  English  particles  to  Saxon  verb* 
or  participles.  The  following  derivations  are  oflcred  principally  on  his 
authority : 

1.  ALTHOUGH  [signifying  admit,  allow,]  is  from  all  and  though;  the  lattci 
being  the  imperative  of  an  ancient  verb,  meaning  to  allow. 

2.  AN  [an  obsolete  conjunction,  signifying  if  or  grant]  is  the  imperative 
of  the  Saxon  verb  anan,  to  grant. 

3.  AND  [add]  is  from  an-ab,  the  imperative  of  anan-ab,   to  grant  to,  tc 
idd. 

4.  As,  according  to  Dr.  Johnson,  is  from  the  Teutonic  als ;  but   J.  II. 
Tooke  says  that  als  itself  is  a  contraction  for  all  and  the  original  particle  t» 
or  as,  meaning  it,  that,  or  which. 

5.  BECAUSE  [by  cause]  is  from  be  and  cause. 

6.  BOTH  [the  two]  is  from  the  pronominal  adjective  both;  which,  accord 
ing  to  Dr.  Alex.  Murray,  is  a  contraction  of  the  Visigothic  bagoth,  doubled. 

7.  BUT  [implying  addition]  is  from  boc,  the  imperative  of  botan,  to  boot 
to  add. 

8.  BUT  [denoting  exception]  is  from  be-utan,  the  imperative  of  beon-utan 
to  be  out. 

9.  EITHER  [one  of  the  two]  is  from  the  Saxon  cegther. 

10.  EKE  [signifying  also  or  add,  nearly  obsolete]  is  from  eac,  the  impera- 
tive of  eacan,  to  add. 

11.  EXCEPT  [unless]  is  the  imperative,  or  (according  to  Dr.  Johnson)  an 
ancient  perfect  participle,  of  the  verb  to  except. 

12.  FOR  [because]  is  the  Saxon  yon,  or  the  Dutch  voor,  from  a  Gothic 
noun  signifying  cause  or  sake. 

13.  IP  [give,  grant,  allow,]  is  from  517,  [gif,]  the  imperative  of  jipan,  to 
give. 

14.  LEST  [that  not,  dismissed]  is  from  lepeb,  the  perfect  participle  of  lerayi, 
to  dismiss. 

15.  NEITHER  [not  either]  is  a  union  and  contraction  of  ne  either :  our  old 
writers  frequently  used  ne  for  not. 

16.  NOR  [not  other,  not  else,]  is  a  union  and  contraction  ofne  or. 

17.  NOTWITHSTANDING  [not  hindering]  is  an  English  compound  which 
needs  no  explanation. 

18.  OR  is  a  contraction  of  the  Saxon  otteji,  other. 

19.  SAVE  [but,  except,]  anciently  used  as  a  conjunction,  is  the  imperative 
of  the  verb  to  save,  meaning  to  except. 

20.  SINCE  [seeing  or  seen]  is  from  ri^er,  or  ryne,  the  perfect  participle  of 
peon,  to  see. 

21.  THAN,  which  introduces  the  latter  term  of  a  comparison,  is  from  the 
Saxon  Sanne,  which  was  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

22.  THAT  [taken]  is  from  fcset,  the  perfect  participle  of  dean,  to  take. 

23.  THOUGH  [allow]  is  from  Sarjj,  the  imperative  of  Sapijan,  to  allow. 

24.  UNLESS  [except,  dismiss,]  is  from  onler,  the  imperative  of  onlefan,  to 
dismis*. 

25.  YET  [get]  is  from  gee,  the  imperative  of  jetan,  to  gti. 


300  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

26.  WHETHER,  which  introduces  the  first  term  of  an  alternative,  is  the 
Saxon  hpoeSeji,  which  was  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

DERIVATION  OF  PREPOSITIONS. 

The  following  is  the  derivation  of  most  of  the  English  Prepositions: 

1.  ABOUT  [at  circuit]  is  from  the  French  d,  or  the  English  prefix  a,  mean- 
ins;  at  or  to,  and  bout,  meaning  turn,  or  limit. 

2.  ABOVE  [at-by-high]  is  from  the  Saxon  a,  be,  and  upa,  high. 

3.  ACROSS  [at  cross]  is  from  a  and  the  noun  cross. 

4.  AFTER  [farther  in  the  rear]  is  the  comparative  of  aft,  now  used  only 
by  seamen. 

5.  AGAINST  [opposed  to]  is  from  on-geonb,  gone  at. 

6.  ALONG  [at-long]  is  from  a  and  long. 

7.  AMID  [at  mid  or  middle]  is  from  a  and  mid. 

8.  AMIDST  [at  midst]  is  from  a  and  midst,  contracted  from  middest,  the  su- 
perlative of  mid. 

9.  AMONG  [a-mLred]  is  abbreviated  for  amongst. 

10.  AMONGST  [a-??iired]  is  from  a  and  mongst,  a  Saxon  participle  signify- 
ing mixed. 

11.  AROUND  [G£  circ/e]  is  from  a  and  round,  a  circle  or  sphere. 

12.  AT  [joining]  is  supposed  by  some  to  come  from  the  Latin  ad;  but  Dr. 
Murray  says,  "  We  have  in  Teutonic  AT  for  AGT,  touching  or  touched,  joined, 
at."— Hist.  Lang.  i.  349. 

13.  ATHWART  [across]  is  from  a  and  thwart,  cross. 

14.  BEFORE  [by-fore]  is  from  be  and  the  adjective  ./or  5. 

15.  BEHIND  [by-hind]  is  from  be  and  the  adjective  hind. 

16.  BELOW  [by-low]  is  from  be  and  the  adjective  low. 

17.  BENEATH  [below]  is  from  be  and  the  adjective  neath,  low  ;  whence  the 
comparative  nether,  lower. 

18.  BESIDE  [by-side]  is  from  be  and  the  noun  side. 

19.  BESIDES*  [by  sides]  is  from  be  and  the  plural  noun  sides. 
19.  BETWEEN  [by-ticain]  is  from  be  and  twain,  two. 

21.  BETWIXT  [6efrreen]  is  from  be  and  toy.r,  a  Gothic  word  signifying  two 
or  twain. 

22.  BEYOND  [6y  g-one]  is  from  be  and  geonb,  the  perfect  participle  of 
geonban,  to  pass  or  go. 

23.  BY  (formerly  written  bi  and  be)  is  the  imperative  of  beon,  to  be. 

24.  CONCERNING  is  from  the  first  participle  of  the  verb  to  concern. 

25.  DOWN  [low]  is  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  adjective  dun,  low. 

26.  DURING  [lasting]  is  from  an  old  verb  dure,  to  last,  formerly  in  use ; 
as,  "  While  the  world  may  dure." — Cliaucer's  Knights  Tale. 

27.  EXCEPT  is  from  the  imperative,  or  (according  to  Dr.  Johnson)  the  an- 
cient perfect  participle,  of  the  verb  to  except. 

28.  EXCEPTING  is  from  the  first  participle  of  the  verb  to  except. 

29.  FOR  [by  cause  of]  is  from  a  Gothic  noun  signifying  cause  or  saJce. 

30.  FROM  is  derived  from  the  Saxon  pjium,  or  pjiam,  beginning. 

31 .  IN  is  from  the  Latin  in :  the  Greek  is  ev,  and  the  French  en. 

32.  INTO  is  a  compound  of  in  and  to. 

33.  NOTWITHSTANDING  [not  hindering]  is  from  the  adverb  not,  and  the 
participle  withstanding. 

34  OF  is  from  the  Saxon  op,  which  H.  Tooke  supposes  to  be  from  a  noun 
signifying  offspring. 


*  Beside  should  be  used  as  a  preposition,  and  besides  only  as  an  adverb 
Bee  reasons  for  this  distinction,  in  Campbell's  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric. 


APPENDIX   II. DERIVATION.  301 

35.  OFF  (opposed  to  on)  Dr.  Johnson  derives  from  the  Dutch  of. 

36.  ON  is  traced  by  etymologists  to  the  Gothic  ana,  the  German  an,  the 
Dutch  aan  ;  but  such  a  derivation  docs  notjlr  its  meaning. 

37.  OUTOF  (opposed  to  into)  is  from  the  adverb  out  and  the  preposition  of 
—usually  written  separately,  but  better  joined  in  some  instances. 

38.  OVER  [above]  is  from  upejia,  higher. 

39.  OVERTHWART  is  a  compound  of  over  and  thwart,  cross. 

40.  PAST  is  a  contraction  from  the  perfect  participle  passed. 

41.  ROUND  [about]  is  from  the  noun  or  adjective  round. 

42.  SINCE  [seen]  is  from  the  perfect  participle  of  peon,  to  see. 

43.  THROUGH  (contracted  from  tliorough)  is  from  a  Saxon  word  meaning 
door  or  passage. 

44.  THROUGHOUT  is  a  compound  of  through  and  out. 

45.  TILL  [the  end]  is  from  the  Saxon  cil,  notin^  end  of  time. 

46.  To  is  a  simple  word  from  the  Saxon  co,  which  is  supposed  to  come 
from  a  Gothic  noun  signifying  end. 

47.  TOUCHING  is  from  the  first  participle  of  the  verb  to  touch. 

48.  TOWARD  or  TOWARDS  is  probably  a  compound  of  to  and  ward,  from 
pajibian,  to  look. 

49.  UNDER  [on  nether]  is  from  the  Dutch  on  neder,  on  lower. 

50.  UNDERNEATH  is  a  compound  from  under  and  neath,  low. 

51.  UNTIL  is  a  compound  from  on  or  un  and  till,  the  end. 

52.  UNTO  (now  little  used)  is  from  on  or  un  and  to. 

53.  UP  is  from  the  Saxon  up,  which  H.  Todke  traces  to  upa,  high. 

54.  UPON  [high  on]  is  from  up  and  on. 

55.  WITH  [Join]  is  probably  from  the  imperative  of  piSan,  to  join. 

56.  WITHIN  [by-in]  is  from  with  and  in. 

57.  WITHOUT  [by-out]  is  from  with  and  out. 

58.  WORTH  [of  the  value  of]  is  from  the  Saxon  verb  wyrthan,  or  weorthcn, 
to  be ;  and  has  by  pedigree  as  good  a  claim  to  be  a  preposition  as  by  and 
with:  the  old  English  writers  used  worth  for  be,  in  every  part  of  the  conju- 
gation.    According  to  J.  H.  Tooke,  with,  in  the  two  compounds  within  and 
without,  is  from  pyjiS,  the  imperative  of  pyji&an,  to  be;  and  the  meaning  of 
the  former  is  be  in,  and  of  the  latter  be  out.     Compare  the  derivations  of  BY, 
WITH,  and  WORTH  ;  and  see  observations  6th  and  7th,  on  Rule  22d,  paga 
185. 

DERIVATION  OF  INTERJECTIONS. 

Those  significant  and  constructive  words  which  are  occasionally  used  as 
Interjections,  do  not  require  an  explanation  here ;  and  those  mere  sound  * 
which  are  in  no  wise  expressive  of  thought,  scarcely  admit  of  definition  or 
derivation.  The  interjection  HEY  is  probably  a  corruption  of  the  adjective 
high; — ALAS  is  from  the  French  helas ; — ALACK  is  probably  a  corruption  of 
alas; — WELAWAY  (which  is  now  corrupted  into  welladay,)  is  from  the  Saxon 
palapa,  wo  on  wo; — FIE,  from  pian,  to  hate; — HEYDAY,  from  high  day  ;— 
AVAUNT,  from  the  French  avant,  before ; — LO,  from  look ; — BEGONE,  from  bt 
zndgone; — WELCOME,  from  well  and  come. 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  PREFIXES. 

In  the  formation,  of  words,  certain  particles  are  often  employed  as  prefix- 
es; which,  as  they  generally  have  some  peculiar  import,  may  be  separately 
explained,  A  few  of  them  are  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin;  and  the  greater  part 
of  these  are  still  employed  as  separate  words  in  our  language.  The  rest  aw 
Latin,  Greek,  or  French  prepositions. — The  roots  to  which  they  ar«  prefix- 
ed, are  not  always  proper  English  words. 

'26 


302  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

L  ENGLISH  OR  ANGLO-SAXON  PREFIXES. 

1.  A  signifies  on,  in  at,  or  to;  as  in  a-broad,  a-shorc,  a-sleep,  a- far,  a- field. 
The  French  a,  to,  is  probably  the  same  ;  as  in  a-dieu.     This  prefix  is  some- 
times redundant;  as  in  a-wake,  a-rise. 

2.  BE  signifies  upon,  by,  to,  or  for ;  as  in  be-spattcr,  be-times,  be-tide^  be- 
speak     It  is  sometimes  redundant ;  as  in  be-gird,  be-dcck,  be-loved. 

3.  COUNTER  means  against,  or  opposite ;  as  in  counter-poise,  counter-evi- 
dence, counter-natural. 

4.  FOR,  in  composition,  seems  to  signify  from :  it  is  found  in  the  irregular 
verbs  far-bear,  for-bid,  for-get,  for-give,  for-sake,  for-swcar  ;  and  infor-do, 
for-pass,for-piney  for-say,for-th,ink,for-waste,  which  last  are  now  seldom 
used. 

5.  FORE,  prefixed  to  verbs,  signifies  before;  as  in  fore-know,  fore-tell; 
prefixed  to  nouns,  it  is  an  adjective,  and  signifies  anterior;  as  in  fore-side, 
fore-part. 

6.  HALF,  signifying  one  of  two  equal  parts,  is  much  used  in  composition ; 
and.  cfi,en,  merely  to  denote  imperfection;  as,  lialf-sighted,  seeing  imper- 
fectly. 

7.  Mis  signifies  wrong ;  as  in  mis-do,  mis-place. 

8.  OVER,  denotes  superiority  or  excess  :  as  in  over-pow er,  over-strain,ovei- 
large. 

9.  OUT,  prefixed  to  verbs,  generally  denotes  excess ;  as  in  out-do,  out- 
leap  :  prefixed  to  nouns,  it  is  an  adjective,  and  signifies  exterior;  as  in  out- 
side, out-parish. 

10.  SELF  signifies  one's  own  person,  or  belonging  to  one's  own  person.     It 
is  much  used  in  composition  ;  as  in  self-love,  self-abuse,  self-affairs,  self-will' 
ed,  self -accusing.     Sometimes  self  means  very;  as  in  self-same. 

11.  UN  denotes  negation  or  contrariety ;  as  in  un-kind,  un-load. 

12.  UNDER  denotes  inferiority ;  as  in  undervalue,  under-clerk. 

13.  UP  denotes  motion  upwards;  as  in  up-lift:  sometimes  subversion;  as 
in  up-set. 

14.  WITH   signifies  against,  from,  or   back ;  as   in  with-stand,  with-?ioldt 
uith-draw. 

II.    LATIN   PREFIXES. 

The  primitives  to  which  these  are  prefixed,  are  not  many  of  them  employ- 
ed separately  in  English.  The  final  letter  of  the  prefix  ad,  con,  ex,  in,  06,  or 
sub,  is  often  changed  before  certain  consonants. 

1.  A,  AB,  or  ABS,  means  from,  or  away:  as,  a-vert,  to  turn  from;  ab-duce, 
to  load  from ;  abs-tract,  to  draw  away. 

2.  AD,  ac,  of,  al,  an,  ap,  as,  at, — to  or  at :  as,  ad-vert,  to  turn  to  ;  ac-cede, 
to  yield  to ;  af-flux,  a  flowing-to ;  al-ly,  to  bind  to ;  an-nex,  to  link  to ;  ap- 
ply, to  put  to ;  as-sume,  to  take  to  ;  at-test,  to  witness  to. 

3.  ANTE, — before;  as  ante-cedent,  going  before  ;  ante-mundane,  before  the 
World;  ante-date,  to  date  before. 

4.  CIRCUM — around  or  about :  as,  circum-volve,  to  roll  around. 

5.  CON,  com,  co,  col,  cor, — together  :  as,  con-tract,  to  draw  together ;  com- 
pel, to  drive  together ;  co-erce,  to  force  together ;  col-lect,  to  gather  together  j 
cor-rade,  to  scrape  together;  con-junction,  a  joining  together. 

6.  CONTRA,— -against:  as  contra-diet,  to  speak  against. 

7.  DE, — of,  from,  or  down :  as,  de-note,  to  be  a  sign  of;  de-tract,  to  draw 
from;  de-pend,  to  hang  down;  de-press,  to  press  down. 

8.  Dis,  DI, — away  or-  apart:  as,  dis-pel,  to  drive  away;  dis-sect,  to  cut 
apart ;  di-vert,  to  turn  away.     Dis,  before  English  words,  generally  reverses 
their  meaning ;  as,  please,  dis -please. 

9.  E  or  EX,  ec,  ef, — out:  as,  e-ject,  to  cast  out;  ex-tract,  to  draw  out;  co* 
ttacy,  a  raising-o«t ;  ef-face,  to  blot  out. 


APPENDIX   II. DERIVATION.  303 

10.  EXTRA, — beyond:  as,  extra-vagant,  wandering  beyond. 

11.  IN,  il,  tTTi,  ir, — in,  into,  against,  or  upon:  as,  in-spire,  to  breathe  in; 
tt-ludc,  to  draw  in  by  deceit;  im-mure,  to  wall  in;  ir-ruption,  a  breaking  in; 
in-cur,  to  run  into;  in-diet,  to  declare  against;  im-pute,  to  charge  upon. 
These  syllables,  prefixed  to  nouns  or  adjectives,  generally  reverse  their  mean- 
ing ;  as,  ir-religion,  ir-rational,  in-secure,  in-sane. 

12.  INTER, — between:  as,  inter-sperse,  to  scatter  between;  inter-jeclion, 
something  thrown  in  between. 

13.  INTRO, — within:  as,  intro-vert,  to  turn  within. 

14.  OB,  oc,  of,  op, — against:  as,  ob-tiude,  to  thrust  against;  oc-cur,  to  run 
against  ;    of-fer,  to  bring  against;   op-pose,  to  place  against;    ob-ject,  cast 
against. 

15.  PER, — through  or  by:   as,  pcr-vade,  to  go  through;  per-chance,  by 
chance ;  per-cent,  by  the  hundred. 

16.  POST, — after:  as,  post-pone,  to  place  after. 

17, — PR;E,  or  pre, — before:  as,  pre-sume,  to  take  before;  pre-postiion,  a 
placing-before,  or  something  placed  before. 

18.  PRO, — for,  forth,  or  forwards:  as,  pro-vide,  to  take  care  for;  pro-due^ 
to  bring  forth ;  pro-trude,  to  thrust  forwards. 

19.  PRETER, — past  or  beyond  :  as,  preter-it,  gone  by  ;  preter-nalural,  be- 
yond what  is  natural. 

20.  RE, — again  or  back:    as,  re-view,  to  view  again;   re^pel,   to  drive 
back. 

21.  RETRO, — backwards:  as,  retro-cession,  a  going-backwards. 

22.  SE, — aside  or  apart:  as,  se-duce,  to  lead  aside;  se-cede.  to  go  apart. 

23.  SEMI, — half:  as,  semi-colon,  half  a  colon;  semi-circle,  half  a  circle; 
semi-vowel,  half  a  vowel. 

24.  SUB,  sup,  sur, — under:  as,  sub-scribe,  to  write  under;  sup-ply,  to  put 
under ;  sur-reption,  a  creeping-under ;  sub-ject,  cast  under. 

25.  SUBTER, — beneath:  as,  subter-jluous,  flowing  beneath. 

26.  SUPER, — over  or  above  :  as,  super-Jluous,  flowing  over;  supcr-natanty 
swimming  above ;  super-lative,  carried  over. 

27.  TRANS, — beyond,  over,  to  an  other  state  or  place:  as,  trans-gress,  to 
pass  beyond  or  over ;  trans-mit,  to  send  to  an  other  place ;  trans-form^  to 
change  to  an  other  shape. 

HI.    GREEK  PREFIXES. 

1.  A  and  AN,  in  Greek,  denote  privation:  as,  a-nomalous,  wanting  rule; 
an-onymous,  wanting  name ;  an-archy.  want  of  government. 

2.  AMPIII, — both  or  two :  as,  amphi-bious,  living  in  two  elements. 

3.  ANTI, — against :    as,  anti-acid,  against   acidity  ;    anti-febrile,  against 
fever ;  anti-thesis,  a  placing-against. 

4.  APO,  aph, — from;  as,  apo-strophe,  a  turning-from ;  aph-ccresis,  a  taking- 
from. 

5.  D i A, -"-through  :   as,  dia-gonal,  through  the  corners ;  dia-meter,  the 
measure  through. 

6.  EPI,  eph, — upon :  as,  epi-dcmic,  upon  the  people ;  eph-cmera,  upon  a 
day. 

7.  HEMI, — half:  as,  heml-sphere,  half  a  sphere. 

8.  HYPER, — over:  as,  hyper-critical,  over-critical. 

9.  HYPO, — under :  as,  hypo-stasis,  substance,  or  that  which  stands  under' 
bypo-thesis,  supposition,  or  a  placing-under. 

10.  META, — beyond,  over,  to  an  other  state  or  place:  as,  mcta-morphotet 
to  change  to  an  other  shape. 

11.  PARA, — against  :    as,  para-dox,   something    contrary    to    common 
•pininn. 

12.  PERI, — around  •  a*,  ptri-phtry,  the  circumference,  or  measure  round. 


304  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

13.  SYN,  sym,  syl, — together:  as,  syn-tax,  a  placing-together;  sym-pathy} 
a  suffering-together ;  syl-lable,  what  is  taken  together. 

IV.    FRENCH   PREFIXES. 

}.  A  is  a  preposition  of  very  frequent  use  in  French,  and  generally  mean? 
to.  We  have  suggested  that  it  is  probably  the  same  as  the  Anglo-Saxon 
prefix  a.  It  is  found  in  a  few  English  compounds  that  are  of  French,  and 
not  of  Saxon  origin :  as,  a-dieu,  to  God ;  a-bout,  to  the  end  or  turn. 

2.  DE, — of  or  from :   as  in  de-mure,  of  manners ;   de-liver,  to  ease  from 
or  of. 

3.  DEMI, — half:  as,  demi-man,  half  a  man. 

4.  EN,  em, — in,  into,  or  upon :  as,  en-chain,  to  hold  in  chains  ;  em-brace, 
to  clasp  in  the  arms ;  en-tomb,  to  put  into  a  tomb ;  em-boss,  to  stud  upon. 
Many  words  are  yet  wavering  between  the  French  and  the  Latin  orthogra- 
phy of  this  prefix ;  as,  embody  or  imbody,  ensurance  or  insurance,  ensnare  or 
insnare. 

5.  SUR, — upon,  over,  or  after:  as,  sur-name,  a  name  upon  a  name;  «tr- 
wy,  to  look  over  j  sur-vive,  to  live  after,  to  over-live,  to  out-live 


APPENDIX   III. 

. 

(SYNTAX.) 

OF  STYLE. 

Style  is  the  particular  manner  in  which  a  person  expresses  his  concep- 
tions by  means  of  language.  It  is  different  from  mere  words,  and  is  not 
to  be  regulated  altogether  by  rules  of  construction.  It  always  has  some 
relation  to  the  author's  peculiar  manner  of  thinking  ;  and,  being  that  sort 
of  expression  which  his  thoughts  most  readily  assume,  sometimes  par- 
takes, not  only  of  what  is  characteristic  of  the  man,  but  even  of  national 
peculiarity.  The  words  which  an  author  employs,  may  be  proper,  and 
BO  constructed  as  to  violate  no  rule  of  syntax ;  and  yet  his  style  may 
have  great  faults. 

To  designate  the  general  characters  of  style,  such  epithets  as  concise, 
diffuse, — neat,  negligent, — nervous,  feeble, — simple,  affected, — easy,  stiff, 
— perspicuous,  obscure, — elegant,  florid, — are  employed.  A  considerable 
diversity  of  style,  may  be  found  in  compositions  all  equally  excellent  in 
their  kind.  And,  indeed,  different  subjects,  as  well  as  the  different  endow- 
ments by  which  genius  is  distinguished,  require  this  diversity.  But  in 
forming  his  style,  the  learner  should  remember,  that  a  negligent,  feeble, 
affected,  stiff,  or  obscure  style,  is  always  faulty  ;  and  that  perspicuity, 
ease,  simplicity,  strength,  and  neatness,  are  qualities  always  to  be  aimed  at. 

In  order  to  acquire  a  good  style,  the  frequent  practice  of  composing  is 
indispensably  necessary  Without  exercise  and  diligent  attention,  rules 
for  the  attainment  of  this  object  will  be  of  no  avail.  When  the  learner 
has  acquired  such  a  knowledge  of  grammar,  as  to  be  in  some  degree  quali- 
fied for  the  undertaking,  he  should  devote  a  stated  portion  of  his  time  to 
composition.  This  exercise  will  bring  the  powers  of  his  mind  into  requi- 
sition, in  a  way  that  is  well  calculated  to  strengthen  them.  And  if  he 
has  opportunity  for  reading,  he  may,  by  a  diligent  perusal  of  the  best 
authors,  acquire  both  language,  taste,  and  sentiment ;  which  are  the  es- 
sential qualifications  of  a  good  writer. 

In  regard  to  the  qualities  which  constitute  a  good  style,  we  can  here 
offer  no  more  than  a  few  brief  hints.  With  respect  to  words  and  phrases, 
particular  attention  should  be  paid  to  purity,  propriety,  and  precision; 
and,  with  respect  to  sentences,  to  perspicuity,  unity,  and  strength.  Un- 
der each  of  these  heads  we  shall  arrange  in  the  form  of  short  precepts, 
a  few  of  the  most  important  directions  for  the  forming  of  a  good  style 

I.  PURITY. 

Purity  of  style  consists  in  the  use  of  such  words  and  phrases  only,  a* 
belong  to  the  language  which  we  write  or  speak. 

PRECEPT  1.  Avoid  the  unnecessary  use  of  foreign  words  or  idioms;  as, 
fraicJvur,  hauteur,  delicatesse,  politesse,  noblesse;  he  repented  himself , 
t  serves  to  an  excellent  purpose. 

PRECEPT  2.  Avoid  obsolete  or  antiquated  words:  as,  whilom,  erewhilej 
whoso,  albeit,  moreover,  aforetime,  methinks. 

PRECEPT  3.  Avoid  strange  or  unauthorized  words:  as,  Jluttcration,  in- 
spectator,  judgematical,  incumberment,  connexity,  electerized,  mar- 
tyrizcd. 

PRECEPT  4.  Avoid  bombast,  or  affectation  of  fine  writing.  It  is  ridicu- 
lous, however  serious  the  subject :  as,  "  Personifications,  however  rich 
26* 


306  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

the  depictions,  and  unconstrained  their  latitude;  analogies,  however  im» 
posing  the  objects  of  parallel,  and  the  media  of  comparison ;  can  never  ex- 
pose the  consequences  of  sin  to  the  extent  of  fact,  or  the  range  of  demon- 
stration."— Anon. 

II.  PROPRIETY. 

Propriety  of  language  consists  in  the  selection  and  right  construction,  of 
such  words  as  the  best  usage  has  appropriated  to  those  ideas  which  we  in- 
tend to  express  by  them. 

PRECEPT  1.  Avoid  low  and  provincial  expressions :  such  as,  says  I; 
tfiinks  I  to  myself;  to  get  into  a  scrape ;  stay  here  while  I  return. 

PRECEPT  2.  In  writing  prose,  avoid  words  and  phrases  that  are  merely 
poetical :  such  as,  morn,  eve,  plaint,  lone,  amid,  oft,  steepy ;  what  time  the 
winds  arise. 

PRECEPT  3.  Avoid  technical  terms:  except  where  they  are  necessary,  in 
treating  of  a  particular  aTt  or  science. 

PRECEPT  4.  Avoid  the  recurrence  of  words  in  different  senses,  or  such  a 
repetition  of  words  as  denote  paucity  of  language :  as,  "  His  own  reason 
might  have  suggested  better  reasons.'' — "  Gregory  favoured  the  undertaking, 
for  no  other  reason  than  this ;  that  the  manager,  in  countenance,  favoured 
his  friend." — "I  want  to  go  and  see  what  he  wants." 

PRECKPT  5.  Supply  words  that  are  wasting :  thus,  in  stead  of  "  This  ac- 
tion increased  his  former  services,"  say,  "  This  action  increased  the  merit  of 
his  former  services." 

PRECEPT  6.  Avoid  equivocal  or  ambiguous  expressions :  as,  "  His  mem- 
ory shall  be  lost  on  the  earth." — "  I  long  since  learned  to  like  nothing  but 
what  you  c/o." 

PRECEPT  7.  Avoid  unintelligible  and  inconsistent  expressions :  as,  "  I 
have  observed  that  the  superiority  among  these  coffee-house  politicians,  pro- 
ceeds from  an  opinion  of  gallantry  and  fashion  " — "These  words  do  not  con- 
vey even  an  opaque  idea  of  the  author's  meaning." 

PRECEPT  8.  Observe  the  natural  order  of  things  or  events,  and  do  not 
put  the  cart  before  the  horse :  as,  "  The  scribes  taught  and  studied  the  law  of 
Moses.1*' — "  They  can  neither  return  to  nor  leave  their  houses." — "  He  tumbled, 
head  over  heels,  into  the  water." 

III.  PRECISION. 

Precision  consists  in  avoiding  all  superfluous  words,  and  adapting  the 
expression  exactly  to  the  thought,  so  as  to  exhibit  neither  more  nor  less 
than  is  intended  by  the  author. 

PRECEPT  1.  Avoid  a  useless  tautology,  either  of  expression  or  sentiment: 
as  in  "  return  again;  return  back  again;  converse  together;  rise  up;  fall 
down;  enter  in;  a  mutual  likeness  to  each  other;  the  latter  end;  liquid 
streams ;  grateful  thanks ;  the  last  of  all ;  throughout  the  whole  book ; 
whenever  I  go,  he  always  meets  me  there \  for  wny;  because  why;  frcrm, 
hence;  where  is  he  at?  in  there;  nothing  else  but  that;  it  is  odious  and 
hateful;  his  faithfulness  andjidelitij  should  be  rewarded." 

PRECEPT  2.  Observe  the  exact  meaning  of  words  accounted  synonymous, 
and  employ  those  which  are  the  most  suitable :  as,  "  A  diligent  scholar  may 
acquire  knowledge,  gain  celebrity,  obtain  rewards,  win  prizes,  and  get  high 
honour,  though  he  earn  no  money."  These  six  verbs  have  nearly  the  same 
meaning,  and  yet  they  cannot  well  be  changed. 

IV.  PERSPICUITY. 

Perspicuity  consists  in  freedom  from  obscurity  or  ambiguity.  It  is  a 
quality  so  essential,  in  every  kind  of  writing,  that  for  the  want  of  it,  no 
merit  can  atone.  Without  this,  the  richest  ornaments  of  style,  only  glim- 
mer through  the  dark,  and  puzzle  in  stead  of  pleasing  the  reader.  Perspi- 


APPENDIX   HI. — STYLE.  307 

coity,  being  the  most  important  property  of  language,  and  an  exemption 
from  the  most  embarrassing  defects,  seems  even  to  rise  to  a  degree  of  posi- 
tive beauty.  We  are  naturally  pleased  with  a  style  that  frees  us  from  all 
suspense  in  regard  to  the  meaning;  that  carries  us  through  the  subject 
without  embarrassment  or  confusion  ;  and  that  always  flows  like  a  limpid 
stream,  through  which  we  can  see  to  the  very  bottom. 

PRECEPT  1.  Place  adjectives,  relative  pronouns,  participles,  adverb?,  and 
explanatory  phrases,  as  near  as  possible  to  the  words  to  which  they  relate, 
and  in  such  a  situation  as  the  sense  requires.  The  following  sentences  are 
deficient  in  perspicuity: — "  Reverence  is  the  veneration  paid  to  superior 
sanctity,  intermixed  with  a  certain  degree  of  awe."  "The  Romans  under- 
stood liberty,  at  least,  as  well  as  we."  "  Taste  was  never  made  to  cater  for 
vanity." 

PRECEPT  2.  In  prose,  avoid  a  poetic  collocation  of  words. 

PRECEPT  3.  Avoid  faulty  ellipses,  and  repeat  all  words  necessary  to  pre- 
serve the  sense.  The  following  sentences  require  the  words  inserted  in 


crotchets:  "  Restlessness  of  mind  disqualifies  us,  both  for  the  enjoyment  of 
id  [for]  the  performance  of  our  duty." — Murray's  Key.      "  The 
Christian  religion  gives  a  more  lovely  character  of  God,  than  any  [other]  reli- 


peace,  and  [for]  the  performance  of  our  duty.' 
Christian  religion  gives 
gion  ever  did." — Ibid. 

V.  UNITY. 

Unity  consists  in  keeping  one  object  predominant  throughout  a  sentence 
or  paragraph.  Every  sentence,  whether  its  parts  be  few  or  many,  requires 
strict  unity. 

PRECEPT  1.  Avoid  brokenness  and  hitching.  The  following  example 
lacks  the  very  quality  of  which  it  speaks :  "  But  most  of  all,  in  a  single  sen- 
tence, is  required  the  strictest  unity.  It  may  consist  of  parts,  indeed,  but 
these  parts  must  be  so  closely  bound  together,  as  to  make  the  impression 
upon  the  mind,  of  one  object,  not  of  many." — Murray's  Grammar. 

PRECEPT  2.  Treat  different  topics  in  separate  paragraphs,  and  distinct 
sentiments  in  separate  sentences.  Error:  "The  two  volumes  are,  indeed, 
intimately  connected,  and  constitute  one  uniform  system  of  English  gram- 
mar."— Murray's  Preface. 

PRECEPT  3.  In  the  progress  of  a  sentence,  do  not  desert  the  principa1 
subject  in  favour  of  adjuncts.  Error:  "To  substantives  belong  gender, 
number,  and  case;  and  they  are  all  of  the  third  person  when  spoken  of  and 
of  the  second  when  spoken  to." — Murray's  Grammar. 

PRECEPT  4.  Do  not  introduce  parentheses,  except  when  a  lively  remaik 
may  be  thrown  in  without  diverting  the  mind  too  long  from  the  principal 
subject. 

VI.  STRENGTH. 

Strength  consists  in  giving  to  the  several  words  and  members  of  a  sen- 
tence, such  an  arrangement  as  shall  bring  out  the  sense  to  the  best  advan- 
tage, and  present  every  idea  in  its  due  importance.  A  concise  style  is  the 
most  favourable  to  strength. 

PRECEPT  1.  Place  the  most  important  words  in  the  situation  in  which 
they  will  make  the  strongest  impression. 

PRECEPT  2.  A  weaker  assertion  should  not  follow  a  stronger;  and 
when  the  sentence  consists  of  two  members,  the  longer  should  be  the 
concluding  one. 

PRECEPT  3.  When  tnin^s  are  to  be  compared  or  contrasted,  then 
resemblance  or  opposition  will  be  rendered  more  striking,  if  some  resem- 
blance in  the  language  and  construction,  be  preserved. 

PRECEPT  4.  It  is,  in  general,  ungraceful  to  end  a  sentence  with  an  ad- 
verb, a  preposition,  or  any  inconsiderable  word  or  phrase,  which  may  either 
be  omitted  or  be  introduced  earlier. 


APPENDIX  TV 

(PROSODY.) 

OF  POETIC  DICTION. 

Poetry,  (as  defined  by  Dr.  Blair)  "  is  the  language  of  pj^sion,  or  of 
enlivened  imagination,  formed,  most  commonly,  into  regular  numbers." 
The  style  of  poetry  differs,  in  many  respects,  from  that  which  is  commonly 
adopted  in  prose.  Poetic  diction  abounds  in  bold  figures  of  speech,  and  un- 
u&ual  collocations  of  words.  A  great  part  of  the  figures  which  have  been 
treated  of  under  the  head  of  prosody,  are  purely  poetiral.  The  «>nmary  aim 
of  a  poet,  is  to  please  and  to  move;  and.  therefore,  it  is  to  the  imagination, 
and  the  passions,  that  he  speaks.  He  niay,  and  he  ought  to  have  it  in  his 
view,  to  instruct  and  reform;  but  it  is  indirectly,  and  by  pleasing  and 
moving,  that  he  accomplishes  this  end.  The  exterior  and  most  obvious  dis- 
tinction of  poetry,  is  versification :  yet  there  are  some  forms  of  verse  so 
loose  and  familiar,  as  to  be  hardly  distinguishable  from  prose ;  and  there  is 
also  a  species  of  prose,  so  measured  in  its  cadences,  and  so  much  raised  in 
its  tone,  as  to  approach  very  nearly  to  poetical  numbers. 

POETICAL  PECULIARITIES. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  most  striking  peculiarities  in  which  the 
poets  indulge,  and  are  indulged: 

I.  They  very  often  omit  the  ARTICLES ;  as, 

"  What  dreadful  pleasure !  there  to  stand  sublime, 
"  Like  shipwrecked  mariner  on  desert  coast .'" — Seattle. 

II.  They  abbreviate  many  NOUNS;  as,  amaze  for  amazement,  acclaim 
for  acclamation,  consult  for  consultation,  corse  for  corpse,  eve  or  even  for  even- 
ing, fount  for  fountain,  helm  for  helmet,  lament  for  lamentation,  morn  for 
morning,  plaint  for  complaint,  targe  for  target,  weal  for  wealth. 

III.  They  employ  several  nouns  that  are  not  used  in  prose ;  as,  benison^ 
boon,  emprise,  fane,  guerdon,  guise,  ire,  ken,  lore,  meed,  sire,  steed,  welkin, 
yore. 

*V.  They  introduce  the  noun  self  after  an  other  noun  of  the  possessive 
cose;  as, 

1.  "  Affliction's  semblance  bends  not  o'er  thy  tomb, 

Affliction's  seZ/'deploren  thy  youthful  doom." — Byron. 

2.  "  Thoughtless  of  beauty,  she  was  beauty's  self." — Thomson. 

V.  They  place  before  the  verb,  words  that  usually  come  after  it;  and,  af- 
ter it,  those  that  usually  come  before  it :  as, 

1.  "  No  jealousy  their  dawn  of  love  o'ercast. 

Nor  blasted  were  their  wedded  days  with  strife." — Seattle. 

2.  "  No  hive  hast  thou  of  hoarded  sweets." 

3.  "  Thy  chain  a  wretched  weight  shall  prove." — Langhomc. 

4.  "Follows  the  loosen'd  aggravated  roar" — Thomson. 
5    "  That  purple  grows  the  primrose  pale" — Langhome. 


APPENDIX  IV. POETIC   DICTION.  309 

VI.  They  often  place  ADJECTIVES after  their  nouns;  as, 

1.  "  Or  where  the  gorgeous  East,  with  richest  hand, 

Showers  on  her  kings  barbaric,  pearl  and  gold." — Milton. 

2.  "  Come,  nymph  demure,  with  mantle  blue" 

VII.  They  ascribe  qualities  to  things  to  which  they  do  not  literally  be- 
long; as, 

1.  "  And  drowsy  tinklings  lull  the  distant  folds." — Gray. 

2.  "  Imbitter'd  more  from  peevish  day  to  day." — Thomson. 

3.  "  All  thin  and  naked  to  the  numb  cold  night" — Shakspeare. 

VIII.  They  use  concrete  terms  to  express  abstract  qualities  j  (i.  e.  adjec- 
tives for  nouns ;)  as, 

1.  "  Earth's  meanest  son,  all  trembling,  prostrate  falls, 

And  on  the  boundless  of  thy  goodness  calls." — Young. 

2.  "  Meanwhile,  whate'er  of  beautiful  or  nctu, 

Sublime  or  dreadful,  in  earth,  sea,  or  sky, 

By  chance  or  search  was  offered  to  his  view, 

He  scann'd  with  curious  and  romantic  eye." — Dcaltie. 

3.  "  Won  from  the  void  and  formless  infinite." •— Milton. 

IX.  They   substitute   quality   for    manner ;    (i.   e.  adjective!  for  ad- 
verbs ;)  as, 

1.  " The  stately-sailing  swan, 

Gives  out  his  snowy  plumage  to  the  gale ; 

And,  arching  proud  his  neck,  with  oary  feet 

Bears  forward  Jierce,  and  guards  his  osier  isle." — Thomson. 

2.  "  Thither  continual  pilgrims  crowded  still." — Id. 

X.  They  form  new  compound  epithets ;  as, 

1.  "In  world-rejoicing  state,  it  moves  sublime." — Thomson. 

2.  "  The  dewy-skirted  clouds  imbibe  the  sun." — Id. 

3.  "  By  brooks  and  groves  in  hollow-whispering  gales."— -Jet 

4.  "  The  violet  of  sky-woven  vest." — Langhorne. 

5.  "  A  league  from  Epidamnum  had  we  sailed, 

Before  the  always-wind-obeying  deep 

Gave  any  tragic  instance  of  our  harm." — Shakapeare. 

XI.  They  connect  the  comparative  degree  to  the  positive;  as, 

1.  "  Near  and  more  near  the  billows  rise." — Merrick. 

2.  "  Wide  and  wider  spreads  the  vale." — Dyer. 

3.  "  Wide  and  more  wide,  the  o'erfiowings  of  the  mind 

Take  every  creature  in,  of  every  kind." — Pope. 

XII.  They  form  many  adjectives  in  i/;  as,  A  gleamy  ray, — towery  height, 
— steepy  hill, — steely  casque, — heapy  harvests, — moony  shield, — writhy  snake, 
— stilly  lake, — vasty  deep, — paly  circlet. 

XIII.  They  employ  adjectives  of  an  abbreviated  form;   as,  dread  for 
dreadful,  drear  for  dreary,  ebon  for  ebony,  hoar  for  hoary,  lone  for  lonely, 
scant  for  scanty,  slope  for  sloping,  submiss  for  submissive,  vermil  for  vermil- 
ion, yon  for  yonder. 

XIV.  They  employ  several  adjectives  that  are  not  used  in  prose;  as, 
azure,  blithe,  boon,  dank,  darkling,  darksome,  doughty,  dun,  fell,  rife,  rapt, 
rueful,  sear,  sylvan,  twain,  wan. 

XV.  They  employ  personal  PRONOUNS,  and  introduce  their  nouns 
afterwards;  as, 

1.  "  It  curl'd  not  Tweed  alone,  that  breeze."—  W.  Scott. 
8.  "  Is  it  the  lightning's  quivering  glance, 

That  on  the  thicket  streams ; 
Or  do  they  flash  on  spear  and  lance, 

The  sun's  retiring  beams" — Id. 


310  ENGLISH   GR*   IMAR. 


XVI.  They  sometimes  omit  the  relative,  of  the  nominative  case    as, 
"  For  is  there  aught  in  sleep  can  charm  the  wise  V — Tliamson. 

XVII.  They  omit  the  antecedent,  or  introduce  it  after  the  relative  j  as, 
J.  "  Who  never  fasts,  no  banquet  e'er  enjoys, 

Who  never  toils  or  watches,  never  sleeps." — Armstrong. 
2.  "  Who  dares  think  one  thing  and  another  tell, 

My  soul  detests  him  as  the  gates  of  hell." — Pope's  Homer. 

XVIII.  They  remove  relative  pronouns  and  other  connectives,  into  the 
body  of  their  clauses ;  as, 

1.  "  Parts  the  fine  locks,  her  graceful  head  that  deck." — Darwin. 

2.  "  Not  half  so  dreadful  rises  to  the  sight 

Orion's  dog,  the  year  when  autumn  weighs." — Thomson. 

XIX.  They  make  intransitive  VERBS  transitive ;  as, 

1.  " Awile  he  stands, 

Gazing  the  inverted  landscape,  half  afraid 

To  meditate  the  blue  profound  below." — Thomson. 

2.  "  Still  in  harmonious  intercourse,  they  liv'd 

The  rural  day,  and  talk'd  the  flowing  heart." — Id. 

XX.  They  give  to  the  imperative  moou  the  first  and  the  third  person;  as, 

1.  "  Turn  ice  a  moment  fancy's  rapid  flight." — Thomson. 

2.  "  Be  man's  peculiar  work  his  sole  delight." — Seattle. 

3.  "  And  what  is  reason?     Be  she  thus  defin'd: 

Reason  is  upright  stature  in  the  soul!" — Young. 

XXI.  They  employ  can,   wuld,  and  would  as  principal  veil?*  traasv 
tive;  as, 

1.  "  What  for  ourselves  we  can,  is  always  ours." 

2.  "Who  does  the  best  his  circumstance  allows, 

Does  well,  acts  nobly: — angels  could  no  more" — Young. 

3.  "  What  -would  this  man  1     Now  upward  will  he  soar, 

And,  little  less  than  angel,  would  be  more." — Pope. 

XXII.  They  place    the  infinitive  bofore  the  word  on  which  it  de- 
pend*;  as, 

"  When  first  thy  sire  to  send  on  earth 
Virtue,  his  darling  child,  designed" — Gray. 

XXIII.  Thev  place  the  auxiliary  after  its  principal;  as, 
"  No  longer  'ieed  the  sunbeam  bright 

That  plays  on  Carron's  breast  he  can." — Langhorne. 

XXIV.  Before  verbs  they  sometimes  arbitrarily  emnloy  or  omit  prefixes; 
as,  begird,  bedim,  evanish,  emove;  for  gird,  dim,  vanish,  move: — lure,  watt, 
wilder,  reave ;  for  allure,  bewail.,  bewilder,  bereave. 

XXV    They  abbreviate  verbs :  as,  list  for  listen,  ope  for  open. 

XXVI.  They  employ  several  verbs  that  are  not  used  in  prose ;  as,  apjxil, 
astound,  brook,  cower,  doff",  ken,  wend,  ween,  trow. 

XXV]  I.   They  sometimes  imitate  a  Greek  construction  of  the  Jmfini- 
tive;  as, 

1.  "  Who  would  not  sing  for  Lycidas?  he  knew 

Himself  to  sing,  and  build  the  lofty  rhyme."-     Milton. 

2.  "  For  not,  to  have  been  dipped  in  Lethe  lake, 

Could  save  the  son  of  Thetis  from  to  die.'  —  Spenser. 

XXVIII.   They  employ  the  PARTICIPLES  more  frfHpenUy  than 
prose  writers,  and  in  a  construction  somewhat  [^ruiiar  j  as, 
1.   "  He  came,  and  standing  in  the  midst,  explained 
The  peace  rejected,  but  the  truce  obtain'd." — Pope. 


APPENDIX   IV. POETIC    DICTIOH 

2.  "  Ai  a  poor  miserable  captive  thrall 

Comes  to  the  place  where  he  before  had  sat 
Among  the  prime  in  splendor,  now  deposed, 
Ejected,  emptied,  gaz'd,  unpitied,  shunn'd, 
A  spectacle  of  ruin  or  of  scorn." — Milton. 

XXIX.  They  employ  several  ADVERBS  that  are  not  used  in  prow,1 

as,  oft,  haply,  inly. 


2.  "  Erect  the  standard  there  of  ancient  night."-  Milton. 

3.  "  The  silence  often  of  pure  innocence 

Persuades,  when  speaking  fails." — Shakspearz. 

4.  "  Where  universal  love  not  smiles  around." — Thomson. 

5.  "  Robs  me  of  that  which  not  enriches  him." — Shakspearc. 

XXXI.  They  omit  the  introductory  adverb  there ;  as, 
&  Was  nought  around  but  images  of  rest." — Thomson. 

XXXII.  They  employ  the  CONJUNCTIONS,  cr—or,  and  nor— nor 
as  correspondents ;  as, 

1.  "  Or  by  the  lazy  Scheldt  or  wandering  Po." — Golden  ith. 

2.  "  Wealth  heap'd  on  wealth,  nor  truth  nor  safety  buyp." — Johnson. 

3.  "  Who  by  repentance  is  not  satisfied, 

Is  nor  of  heaven  nor  earth." — Sliakspeare. 

XXXIII.  They  oftemplace  PREPOSITIONS  and  their  adjuncts,  be- 
fore the  words  on  which  they  depend  ;  as, 

"  Against  your  fame  with  fondness  hate  combines; 
ThCjiival  batters,  and  the  lover  mines." — Johnson. 

XXXIV.  The}1'  sometimes  place  the  preposition  after  it    ob»ect ;  ai, 

1.  "  When  beauty,  Eden's  bowers  within, 

First  stretch'd  the  arm  to  deeds  of  sin, 
When  passion  burn'd,  and  prudence  slept, 
The  pitying  angels,  be/it  and  wept."—  Hogg. 

2.  "  The  Muses  fair,  these  peaceful  shades  among, 

With  skilful  fingers  sweep  the  trembling  strings." — Lloyd* 

XXXV.  They  employ  INTERJECTIONS  more    frequently  than 
prose  writers ;  as, 

"  O  let  me  ffaze  ! — Of  gazing  there's  no  end. 
O  let  me  think ! — Thought  too  is  wilder'd  here." — Young. 

XXXVI.  They  employ  ANTIQUATED  WORDS  and  modal  of  ex- 
pression  ;  as, 

1.  "  Withouten  that  would  come  un  heavier  bale." — Thomson. 

2.  "  He  was  to  weet,  a  little  roguish  page, 

Save  sleep  and  play,  who  minded  nought  at  all." — Id. 

3.  "  Not  one  eftsoons  in  view  was  to  be  found." — Id. 

4.  "  To  number  up  the  thousands  dwelling  here, 

An  useless  were,  and  eke  an  endless  task." — Id. 
!>.  "  Of  clerks  good  plenty  here  you  mote  espy" — Id. 

6.  u But  these  I passen  by,  with  nameless  numbers  moc" — Id. 

THE  END. 


L  . 


VB  0 1  7. 


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